Outdoor
Action Guide to Group Dynamics & Leadership
Preparation,
Motivation, or "Sell It"
Create in
your participants a receptive attitude and a desire to learn the
skill.
- Put your
students at ease.
- Establish
an informal arrangement.
- Name the
skill.
- Use stories
to prove the importance of a skill.
- Give necessary
background; for example:
- Purpose
of a skill.
- When
it is used.
- How
it is used.
- Why
it is used.
- Where
it is used.
Presentation,
Demonstration, or" Show It"
Arrange in
such a way that the participants can follow the demonstration
easily and see all that is to be seen.
- Teach
one skill at a time.
- Explain
while showing - tell and show.
- Face the
participants while telling and showing.
- Speak
clearly and demonstrate deliberately in continuous sequence.
- Stress
the key points of the skill.
- Stress
the need for repetition.
- "Whole-Part-Whole"
method of presenting a skill:
- Show
the whole skill first.
- Break
the skill into parts.
- Show
the whole skill again in slow motion.
Application,
Practice, or "Do It"
Make use
of mass group, partners, and individual methods of class organizations
according to the type of skill, size of class, size of class area.
- Have participants
do the skill.
- Have participants
practice progressively in parts leading to attainment of the
whole skill.
- Watch
for and correct errors immediately. Early correction of an error
leads to increased success.
- Compliment
and encourage your participants.
Adoptions,
Follow-up, or "Use It"
The "Law
of Use and Disuse" states "that a skill which is used frequently
becomes a habit and if not used frequently may be forgotten."
- Apply
and adapt the skill to numerous situations, such as:
- Testing
- Problem
work or drills
- Teaching
to a student who has difficulty
- Encourage
its use in actual situations.
- Have people
teaching the skill to others - individual or class.
- Review
skills periodically.
Conclusion:
A good teacher challenges, inspires, encourages, and helps his/her
participants with the skills. A good teacher never gives up, is
patient, avoids bad mannerisms, speaks clearly and distinctly,
uses simple language that all can understand, and emphasizes
key points when talking directly to a group of participants.
Increased self sufficiency Meeting people more easily
Breaking down sex barriers Increased self-awareness
Increased awareness of others Intense personal contact
Appreciation of wilderness New wilderness skills
Adaptability to new situations Self-confidence
Escape from pressures Appreciation of civilization
Increased self-esteem Fun
Leveler Increased self-reliance
New random group Pushing limits
Seeing worth in others Education outside the classroom
Teaching responsibility to others Awareness of how your actions effect others
Appreciation of the natural environment Honesty & Self-disclosure
OA is based
on a model of experiential learning known as the Thaw-Shift- Refreeze
Cycle. This model assumes that we each have a developed set of
behaviors and attitudes. When we are placed in a new situation,
our old behaviors may not be appropriate. So there is a thawing
period during which new behaviors/skills can be learned. If these
new behaviors work well, and are properly reinforced, they re-freeze
and the person incorporates a new set of behaviors.
It is essential
to remember the following points:
- New behaviors
are learned primarily from the leaders.
- It may
be a challenge/stress situation (such as hiking in a downpour
- see Challenges below) that initiates the Thaw-Shift-Refreeze
Cycle.
- There
may be anxiety during the Shift process while the person casts
of old "safe" behavior and struggles to learn new behavior.
The wilderness
provides an excellent "classroom" for this type of development.
An outdoor environment, in a small group setting provides an immediate
and simplified environment. You are dealing with basic issues
like staying warm and dry, feeding yourself, and traveling from
A to B. As a result the skills you need are basic ones which give
you immediate feedback. If you didn't set the tarp up right, you
get wet. Thus participants are in an environment where new behaviors
are learned quickly.
The other
essential part of the situation is the group. A small group setting
(8-12) provides for diverse interaction and sharing yet also is
small enough so that close relationships can be formed. The interconnections
between people in the group are essential for providing support
and encouragement as people face challenges and learn from them.
Once again the leaders must work to facilitate effective group
interaction.
Experiential
Learning is learning through doing. By definition this involves
change which is an active process. Remember that change and new
situations can create anxiety for participants. The general process
of personal change is shown in Figure 9.1
Figure
9.1
What
Causes the Thaw?
- New environment
- Equalizer
- New people
- Positive
relationships
- Role models
- New rules,
goals
- Stress
- physical, emotional
- Challenge
- Disequilibrium
The fundamental
goal of dealing with challenge is not whether you reach
the summit but did you push yourself beyond your previous limits
in the attempt. This is what creates growth and change, the knowledge
that you can move beyond where you were before. Be aware that
if a person gets confused about the locus of the challenge (e.g.
perceives the obstacle to be internal when in fact it is external
or vice versa) s/he may become frustrated trying to overcome the
challenge.
Example:
Jim is having a hard time hiking on a wet, rocky trail. He perceives
that obstacle as internal, "I must be a wimp." In fact, the obstacle
is external-the trail is truly difficult-and everyone else may
be having trouble. If this can be pointed out, Jim won't be so
frustrated and angry with himself.
- A challenge
may be something one seeks out (going rock climbing) or something
encountered unexpectedly (bad weather).
- Motivation
and skill may be key factors in moving past/through the obstacle.
Many challenges involve an emotional component (often stressful).
- Remember
nothing is trivial! Each of us experiences challenge differently
and each of us has different experiences which are challenging.
- As a leader
you may want to push someone to attempt a challenge, but know
when to back off. This is a fundamental principla known as Challenge
by Choice. At the final point addressing a challenge
should be a personal decision by the participant, not something
they are forced or pressured into. Accepting a challenge is
a motivational choice. Yes, I will attempt it or No,
I won't attempt it. Support the person in either decision they
make. If s/he chooses not to continue, let the person pass and
be supportive in such a way so that they feel empowered by their
willingness to try rather than devalued for not having achieved
the task. Accept the individual's choice, as long as
it is not unsafe.
- The key
to growth through the Thaw-Shift-Refreeze process is not
whether the person did the activity, but rather that s/he pushed
to his/her limits to try it.
- Be aware
of the Process of Decreasing Self-worth: Did not achieve goal
Sense of Failure Feeling one is not a good person, feeling that
the group will think less of you . To combat the process of
decreasing self-worth let the person know that s/he is an accepted
and valuable part of the group. Make the person aware of the
semantics of the words success and failure. Neither
exist as absolutes though we treat them as such. In fact, they
exist along a continuum. If you try to get from A to Z and only
get to T you have not failed! You have made great strides. If
someone stands at the edge of a rappel for 20 minutes, scared,
and finally decides not to do it, they have in fact succeeded.
They pushed themselves to and beyond their limits probably more
than the others who went down the rope (since it was probably
less of a challenge for them).
- Challenge
can be an integral part of being in the wilderness which is
one reason why OA is able to accomplish so much in terms of
personal development. However, always keep in mind that your
diverse group can handle different challenges at different levels.
Make sure you are not placing people in situations where the
challenge is too far beyond their current levels. This does
not lead to feelings of achievement and growth but rather to
frustration and loss of self-esteem (see above).
- Also remember
that "artificial challenges" created by the leaders can be a
wonderful stimulus for development (Example: setting up camp
without talking). However, if the level of challenge
is inappropriate, it can lead to great frustration with the
leaders. Make sure that you are not increasing the Accident
Potential (see Section 10 - Safety & Emergency Procedures:
Dynamics of Accidents).
Hiking faster Dealing with people different from yourself
Hiking slower Taking care of the wilderness
Leadership Sharing responsibility
Trusting others Learning a new skill
Responsibility to others Taking risks
Endurance/physical stress Honesty with the group/self-disclosure
What is
Disequilibrium?
Disequilibrium
is also a challenge. It occurs when someone feels "out of their
element" and can often be a stimulus for the Thaw-Shift-Refreeze
Cycle. Disequilibrium is caused by:
- Unfamiliar
settings
- Unmet
needs (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs)
Learning
to be an effective leader is on of the most demanding tasks you
will face. Some of the responsibilities and roles you will need
to play are listed below.
- Safety
- Honesty
- Establish
trust
- Teach
skills
- Be vulnerable
- Role model
- Provide
balance
- Adapt
to situation(s)
- Make decisions
- Provide
motivation
- Facilitate
group interaction
- Move group
from A B
- Be sensitive
to needs of group
- Deal with
expectations of others
Leader Roles
- Listener
- Confidant
- Initiator
- Decision-maker
- Mediator
- Observer
- Authority
- Advisor
- Communicator
- Friend
- Advocate
This model
of leadership is based on the premise that in working with a group
there are two basic functions which need to be attended to. One
is working to accomplish the tasks the group has set out to do.
The other is ongoing maintenance and development relationships
within the group. Thus there are two basic types of roles or behaviors
for leaders to engage in-Task Roles and Relationship Roles. Examples
of these roles are identified below.
- Information
and Opinion Giver: Offers facts, opinions ideas, suggestions,
and relevant information to help group discussion.
- Information
and Opinion Seeker: Asks for facts, information, opinions,
ideas, and feelings from other members to help group discussion.
- Starter:
Proposes goals and tasks to initiate action within the group.
- Direction
Giver: Develops plans on how to proceed and focuses attention
on the task to be done.
- Summarizer:
Pulls together related ideas or suggestions and restates and
summarizes major points discussed.
- Coordinator:
Shows relationships among various ideas by pulling them together
and harmonizes activities of various subgroups and members.
- Diagnoser:
Figures out sources of difficulties the group has in working
effectively and the blocks to progress in accomplishing the
group's goals
- Energizer:
Stimulates a higher quality of work from the group.
- Reality
Tester: Examines the practicality and workability of ideas,
evaluates alternative solutions, and applies them to real situations
to see how they will work.
- Evaluator:
Compares group decisions and accomplishments with group standards
and goals.
- Encourager
of Participation: Warmly encourages everyone to participate
giving recognition for contributions, demonstrating acceptance
and openness to ideas of others, is friendly and responsive
to group members
- Harmonizer
and Compromiser: Persuades members to analyze constructively
their differences in opinions, searches for common elements
in conflicts and tries to reconcile disagreements.
- Tension
Reliever: Eases tensions and increases the enjoyment of
the group members by joking, suggesting breaks, and proposing
fun approaches to group work.
- Communication
Helper: Shows good communications skills and makes sure
that each group member understands what the other members are
saying.
- Evaluator
of Emotional Climate: Asks members how they feel about the
way in which the group is working and about each other, and
shares own feelings about both.
- Process
Observer: Watches the process by which the group is working
and uses the observations to help examine group effectiveness.
- Standard
Setter: Expresses group standards and goals to make members
aware of the direction of the work and the progress being made
toward the goal and to get open acceptance of group norms and
procedures.
- Active
Listener: Listens and serves as an interested audience for
other members, is receptive to others' ideas, goes along with
the group when not in disagreement.
- Trust
Builder: Accepts and supports openness of other group members,
reinforcing risk taking and encouraging individuality.
- Interpersonal
Problem Solver: Promotes open discussion of conflicts between
group members in order to resolve conflicts and increase group
togetherness.
The notion
that leadership is distributed enters in because all of
these roles do not need to be fulfilled by the leader. In many
instances a member of the group may be the Energizer who gets
people psyched to get out of bed in the morning etc. As the group
matures and develops into a cohesive entity, more of these roles
are taken on by the participants and the leaders can play less
of a active role.
Situational
Leadership Theory (SLT) takes the Distributed Functions Model
of leadership one step further by stating that there is a most
effective style of leadership in any particular situation (See
Figure 9.2).
SLT states
that Task Behavior is the extent to which a leader engages in
one-way communication by explaining what participants are supposed
to do as well as when, where, and how tasks are to be accomplished.
Relationship Behavior is the extent to which a leader engages
in two-way communication by providing emotional support, "strokes"
and facilitating behaviors.
SLT is based
on an interplay between
- The amount
of direction (task behavior) the leaders give,
- the amount
of emotional support the leaders provide, and
- the "maturity"
level that participants exhibit on a specific task, function,
or objective.
Participant
Maturity is defined as the capacity to set high but attainable
goals (achievement motivation), willingness and ability to take
responsibility, and education and/or experience of and individual
or group. These variables should be considered only in relation
to a specific task to be performed.
Example:
On the first day of a canoeing trip the participants have a low
maturity. Most have never done it before. They don't know the
strokes, the terminology, or how to canoe with a partner. Also
the group is new to the area and each other. On the fourth day
of the trip, the group probably has a high degree of maturity
in canoeing. They have learned how to successfully maneuver the
canoe and how to work together with a partner. They may be able
to handle easy whitewater that you would not have taken them down
the first day.
SLT defines
four general styles of leadership based on the degree of Task
Behavior and the degree of Relationship Behavior (see the diagram
below).
High
Task/Low Relationship Behavior - is referred to
as "telling" because this style is characterized by one-way communication
in which the leader defines the roles of participant(s) and tells
them what, how, when, and where to do various tasks.
High
Task/High Relationship Behavior - is referred to as "selling"
because with this style most of the direction is still provided
by the leader. S/he also attempts through two-way communication
and emotional support to get the participant(s) to buy into decisions
that have to be made.
High
Relationship/Low Task Behavior - is called "participating"
because with this style the leader and the participant(s) now
share in decision making through two-way communication and much
facilitating behavior from the leader since the participant(s)
have the ability and knowledge to do the task.
Low
Relationship/Low Task Behavior - is labeled "delegating"
because the style involves letting participant(s) "run their own
show." The leader delegates since the participant(s) are high
in maturity, being both willing and able to take responsibility
for directing their own behavior.
SLT connects
the style of leadership with the maturity level of the group.
That is, to determine the most effective style of leadership,
first determine the maturity level of the group in relation to
the specific task. Then draw a line from the maturity level axis
to the bell-shaped curve in the drawing. The intersection of the
line and the bell curve indicates the most effective leadership
style for that situation. As the group matures, the most effective
style of leadership changes along the bell curve.
Example:
On the first day of a trip the participants have a low maturity
when it comes to setting up camp. The most effective leadership
style is High Task/Low Relationship (Telling) since participants
need to be taught how and where to set things up. On the fourth
day of the trip, the group probably has a high degree of maturity
in relation to setting up camp. In this case the most effective
leadership style is Low Task/Low Relationship (Delegating) since
the participants can handle it on their own.
The important
point to remember regarding SLT is that there is no one "best"
way to be a leader. Rather, from one situation to the next
there is a most effective style. As situations change,
the tasks change and so do the maturity levels of the individual
or group in relation to the task. Thus, throughout the trip you
will be changing your style in order to provide the most effective
leadership. This also does not mean that using another style off
of the bell curve is "wrong" but it probably will be less effective
or appropriate.
Example:
On the fourth day of the trip, the participants know what to do
about setting up camp and are good at doing it themselves. If
the leader(s) use a High Task/Low Relationship style the participants
are likely to wonder why they are being "told" what to do and
may get frustrated or angry with the leader(s).
As the group
matures they take on more responsibility for running the group
both in terms of tasks and relationships. The Distributed Functions
Model comes in here because the participants have begun to take
on many of the leadership roles originally provided by the leaders.
As much as possible it is a goal to move to a Delegating style
(as long as the participants are ready for it) since this helps
to facilitate growth through the Cycle of Change.
- Age of
group
- Motivation
of participants
- Trip situations/activities
- Safety
issues
For example:
When teaching an important skill you would be more task oriented.
Also in any emergency situation you need to take quick charge of
things via the task oriented style. Remember to use your "leader's
radar" to assess not only the state of maturity of the group but
also the maturity of each individual. You may need to use one style
with the entire group and different styles with individuals within
the group.
Developmental
Approach - Maturity can be increased by the leaders using
a little less task behavior (direction) allowing the participant(s)
to take on more responsibility. If this responsibility is well
handled, the leader should encourage the participant(s) with an
slight increase in relationship behavior (encouragement). Keep
in mind that the movement towards changing leadership styles must
be gradual. As the participant(s) reach moderate levels of
maturity the leaders can begin to reduce both task behavior and
relationship behavior. The reduction in relationship behavior
means that the participant(s) have reached a point where they
are confident enough and sharing enough among themselves that
the leaders do not need to provide so much.
Regressive
Approach - It is possible that as the situation changes
the groups maturity can decrease. If this occurs the leader(s)
must modify their style in the opposite direction on the bell
curve by increasing task and relationship behavior.
Example:
On the fourth day of the trip it is pouring rain. When the group
gets into camp everyone just stands around somewhat mopey. Even
though they know what to do, the weather has gotten to them and
their maturity level has decreased. The leaders need to become
more directive in terms of task behavior to get camp set up and
to increase relationship behavior to help lift people's spirits.
1. One-way
Communication - giving instructions or making announcements
to the group who are not allowed to communicate. The listeners
are passive and the communication effectiveness is determined
by how the messages are created and presented. It takes less time
to communicate info but is less effective. Though less frustrating
for the sender, it is more unsatisfactory for the receivers. [Assigning
a Task]
2. One-way
Communication with Feedback (coercive or directive) - the
leader presents the message and the group gives feedback on how
they understand it. Exchange is completed when the group members
indicate to the leader that they have received the message correctly.
Called coercive because no provision exists for mutual influence
or exchange. The communication begins with the belief that the
leaders's position is correct and that the only information s/he
needs form the group is that they correctly understand and accept
the message. It is faster than two-way communication and less
frustrating for the leader but also less accurate and more frustrating
for the group members. [Teaching a Skill].
When one-way
and one-way with feedback are used, communication can be so poor
that informal communication among group members is necessary in
order for them to complete the group's tasks adequately. Unless
members have the opportunity to communicate freely with the leader,
the informal network may become more influential and effective
that the group's formal network. It also may lead to fragmentation
and factionalization if the group members have different ideas.
3. Two-way
Communication - is a reciprocal process in which each member
starts messages and tries to understand the other members's message.
The leader and the members freely exchange ideas and information
in a productive discussion. Both sending and receiving skills
are needed. All members are able to participate at will, minority
opinions are encouraged and more apt to be expressed. Feelings
of resistance or doubt can be discussed and resolved at the time.
Two-way communication encourages open interaction, distributed
participation and leadership, and consensual decision making.
Although it is much more time consuming and more frustrating for
the leader, it is less frustrating for the group members and much
more effective in the long run since the experience of all group
members is brought to bear.
- Clearly
own your messages by using "I" language. (See Leadership Concepts
below).
- Make your
messages complete and specific.
- Make your
verbal and nonverbal messages congruent.
- Be redundant.
- Ask for
feedback concerning the way your messages are being received.
- Make the
message appropriate to the receiver's frame of reference.
- Describe
your feelings by name, action, or figure of speech.
- Describe
other member's behavior without evaluating or interpreting.
- Acknowledge
how the other person is feeling.
- Make sure
that your body language communicates your attentiveness to the
person. You should be looking at them, have a focused body posture,
etc.
- Paraphrase
accurately and nonevaluatively the content of the message and
the feelings of the sender.
- Describe
what you perceive to be the sender's feelings.
- State
your interpretation of the sender's message and negotiate with
the sender until there is agreement as to the message's meaning.
Leader's
radar is all about listening and assessment. It means being attentive
to all of the members of the group, including your co-leader and
yourself. From a safety perspective, it means being aware of increasing
Accident Potential (see Section 10). From a group dynamics perspective
it means being aware of how each individual member of the group
is doing emotionally, physically, are they being challenged, under
stress, getting along with others, in conflict, etc. It also means
having a sense of the group as a whole. How well are they interacting
and coperating, etc. All of this "information gathering" is for
you to determine what each person needs from you in terms of education,
support, encouragement, being left alone, etc. Leader's radar
is made up of concrete listening skills, conversations with your
co-leader, careful observation, and intuition. As you develop
this skill through actuial trip leading experience, you will be
better able to dtermine what roles and steps you should take in
working to facilitate a positive group experience.
Research
shows that in western culture there are gender differences where
men and women tend to use different paradigms for communication.
Women tend to communicate with a goal of establishing connection
and men tend to communicate with a goal of establishing status.
Both status (asymmetrical communication) and connection (symmetrical
communication) can be present to varying degrees in a conversation
and both approaches are used by both men and women.
These two
different approaches are often correlated with "soft skills" and
"hard skills" which is why these skills have been connected with
female roles and male roles. The "female paradigm" (soft skills)
is demonstrated when the leader is focusing on developing positive
connections between the members of the group. The "male paradigm"
(hard skills) is demonstrated when the leader is giving instruction
(teaching) since this ususally creates a hierarchical structure
where one person knows more than another (differential status).
It is important
to recognize your own dominant conversational style and be aware
of the situations where it is most effective. Being a well-rounded
leader means expanding your communication repertoire to include
both styles and recognizing when they are most effective. We need
to demonstrate to men that female paradigms are valid and demonstrate
to women that male paradigms are valid. Like Situational Leadership,
there are different situations in which asymmetrical and symmetrical
conversational styles are most effective. Figure 9.3 shows conversation
style as related to Situational Leadership. As you can see, when
the leaders are focusing on more task-oriented behaviors the most
effective conversational style is more assymmetrical since this
is often associated with teaching skills to participants. When
leaders are focusing more on relationship-oriented behaviors the
most effective communication style is more symmetrical since the
goal is to develop positive group interaction. Remeber that both
styles will be active in a conversation, just that one may be
more prevalent than the other depending on the situation.
It is also
important to recognize how the dominant styles of your participants
can sometime affect their roles within the group. In groups seeking
to develop camaraderie, men will tend to engage in establishing
hierarchy and women in developing connections. For example, men
are often afraid to ask questions about how to do something because
it "places" them in a lower status position. Men would rather
"figure it out for themselves" and maintain independence rather
than feel uncomfortable in "surrendering" control. Women may not
be as ready to "take over" a conversation if they feel it will
damage the connection between members. The degree to which hierarchy
can be downplayed and connection increased improves group boding.
The OA model of shifting more responsibility onto the participants
while the leaders move from providing instructions to developing
rapport facilitates this process.
Space tolerance
in communication is primarily the difference between symmetrical
and asymmetrical conversation. Women, with a greater focus on
connection, are willing to wait longer to "fill the conversational
gap" than men. Men, due to their focus on hierarchy, tend to step
into the gap more quickly. This can create the appearance of the
male leader as the authority figure (hard skills) while the female
leader is perceived as the group bonder (soft skills). In fact,
both leaders have the same skills. Leaders need to discuss the
issue of their own personal space tolerance and find a comfortable
level for between them so that both leaders can take on different
roles with the group.
Both feedback
and self-disclosure are essential communications skills. Through
self-disclosure we reveal things about ourselves to others in
a way that allows us to be vulnerable and demonstrates that we
trust the others in the group. Self-disclosure by one person tends
to lead to self-disclosure by others increasing group sharing
and trust. This is an important behavior for leaders to model
to participants since it helps establish symmetrical communication
and encourages group bonding. Sharing leads to trust. But, one
has to trust in order to share, therefore start
with sharing. It is here that leaders modeling sharing
behavior becomes crucial.
It is important
to remember, however, that the level of self-disclosure has to
start slowly. If you get "too deep too fast", you will frighten
others away from sharing. Like Space Tolerance, different people
are comfortable with different levels of slf-disclosure. In order
to create a "safe environment" for all group members you will
need to model levels of disclosure that are appropriate for all
members of the group. You can usually tell whether people are
comfortable going deeper. If responses suddenly get "light and
silly" it may be that people aren't ready to go any further. Slack
off and let the group or individual(s) get there at their own
pace.
Feedback
is a tool for leaders to encourage positive behavior change, to
correct inappropriate behavior, and to help others see themselves
more clearly. Remember, like self-disclosure, feedback is a powerful
tool that should be used carefully so as to be at a level appropriate
to the individual or group. Leaders should also be prepared to
give each other feedback throughout the trip to see how tings
are progressing.
- Decide
whether the feedback should be to the entire group or to an
individual. If you are giving feedback to an individual, decide
whether it needs to be done in private.
- Feedback
should be descriptive rather than evaluative. For example, "When
you were at the crux of the climb and seemed to be having difficulty,
I felt that you took charge of yourself and continued the climb."
- Feedback
should focus on specific behaviors and actions rather than on
generalizations. For example to be told that one is dominating
is not productive. Instead, tell the person, "when we got into
camp you told everyone else what to do and did not allow anyone
else to take an active role."
- Give feedback
that focuses on behavior the person can change. People will
only be frustrated if they are reminded of something over which
they have no control or can't change quickly.
- Feedback
can be focusing on positive aspects of the person or group or
negative aspects. When focusing on negative aspects, be sensitive
to focusing on specific behavior that is problematic. Make sure
that you express that you value the person, but have a problem
with the specific behavior. Use "I language" to communicate.
- Make sure
the timing is right to give someone feedback. In general it
is best to give feedback at the earliest opportunity. However,
if the person is not going to be receptive to feedback at this
point (disappointed, angry, etc.), then giving it will not be
helpful.
- Try to
express your feedback from a point of reference that will make
sense to the person.
- Has a
clear understanding of its goals: overall and immediate.
- Is flexible
in selecting its procedure as it works toward its goals.
- Has achieved
a high degree of communication and understanding among its members.
Communication of personal feelings and attitudes as well as
ideas occurs in direct and open fashion because it is considered
important to the work of the group.
- Is able
to initiate and carry out an effective decision-making, carefully
considering minority viewpoints and securing the commitment
of all members to important decisions.
- Achieves
an appropriate balance between group productivity and the satisfaction
of individual needs.
- Provides
for sharing of leadership responsibilities.
- Has a
high degree of cohesiveness (attractiveness to its members).
- Makes
intelligent use of the differing abilities if its members.
- Can be
objective about reviewing its own processes. Can face problems
and adjust to needed modification.
- Maintains
a balance between emotional and rational behavior, channeling
emotionally into productive group effort.
- Members
must interact, give and receive help from one another, and share
ideas, information, and resources to help accomplish the group's
goals.
- The group
goal of getting the task done at the highest level possible
must be accepted by everyone, and members need to develop commitment
to the group goal.
- Because
the possibility exists of different group members doing different
sub-tasks, groups may divide the labor in various ways to accomplish
their goals.
- Rewards,
if any, must be based upon the quality and quantity of group
performance, not individual performance.
There are
several basic stages that new groups go through as they move to
becoming effective as a group. These stages parallel the Situational
Leadership Model (see above), different styles of leadership tend
to work best at different points in the overall development of
the group.
- Forming
(Getting Acquainted) - This first stage is characterized
by a sense of uncertainty and awkwardness and perhaps anxiety.
Participants may be unsure of what to do and how to do it. The
"rules of the road"-group norms and standards have yet to be
defined and participants are eagerly looking to find out what
is okay and not okay. This phase often shows as tentativeness
or even some anxiety on the part of the participants. Leaders
need to set the tone for group behavior, activities,
and interactions (see Establishing Group Norms below). Most
people are polite as they try to put their "best foot forward."
The result is a superficial level of harmony and cooperation.
This serves the purpose of getting the group started and off
the ground in terms of motivation and commitment. Members may
tend to verbalize how close they feel to each other, and may
develop quite a group spirit due to successful task accomplishment.
Leadership at this point should be a combination of High Task/Low
Relationship (Telling) in terms of teaching skills and establishing
norms moving to High Task/High Relationship (Selling) to get
everyone involved and interacting in the group.
- Storming
(Struggling Forward) - This next stage is characterized
by individual assertive behavior which may result in some group
instability. Participants have begun to feel comfortable enough
with their new environment to take some risks in revealing more
of their personalities. Each person wants to feel a sense of
individual importance and influence on the group - "finding
a niche." This becomes more evident as increasing responsibility
is shifted to the group as they move into moderate levels of
maturity. The Leadership style which may be most effective are
High Task/High Relationship (Selling). Leaders should not be
surprised if some conflicts develop in the group at this stage.
This is part of the natural process of the group becoming self-sustaining.
- Norming
(Becoming Personal) - This stage is characterized by a growth
of affection and establishment of personal relationships. Participants
will begin to take responsibility for resolving conflicts and
strengthening friendships. The Leadership style which may be
most effective is Low Task/High Relationship (Participating)
since the group is competent regarding tasks but needs assistance
and support in terms of relationships.
- Performing
(Working Together) - This stage is characterized by harmony
among group members. Participants look outwards to see how other
people in the group are doing to make sure all are supported.
Decision making and problem solving will be shared within the
group. At this stage the group is mature enough to attend to
its own needs both in terms of task and relationship matters.
The leadership style which would be most effective would be
Low Task/Low Relationship (Delegating).
- Transference
- This final part of the group process is essential in making
sure that the trip is not remembered as "just a fun couple days
in the woods." It is important that participants be able to
transfer the things which they have learned about themselves
and being in a group back to their regular lives. This is accomplished
through the debriefing process discussed in below in Transferring
the Experience.
Establishing
norms is an important part of the first stage of group development,
letting people learn "the rules of the road." Many of the group
norms that we use in OA are actually underlying goals for the
experience (like group cooperation, minimal impact, etc.). Group
norms can be established in three ways:
- Stating
- telling/explaining to people how to behave, e.g. this is how
to wear a pack.
- Modeling
- demonstrating behavior for others to adopt, e.g. leaders picking
up trash along the trail.
- Importing
- bringing in behavior customary in other social situations,
e.g. people will going off into the woods for privacy to go
to the bathroom.
These methods
often must be combined in order to work effectively. For example,
if you want to reinforce minimal impact camping practices you
will need to state it as a goal, explain how to accomplish it,
and model the behavior. If the leader simply tells people to pick
up trash along the trail, but then walks right by trash without
picking it up, the participants become confused as to the norm
and may assume that the instruction was merely lip service. Remember,
at the beginning of a trip, participants may not know what to
expect and may not have previous experience in the outdoors. Direct
demonstration is the best way to get things across in this early
stage. Before the trip goes out, think about what sorts of group
norms you want to convey to the group before leaving campus as
well as what things you will need to cover during the trip. Below
are some examples of things to present to the group.
- Group
Cooperation (everyone needs to do their share)
- Minimal
Impact Camping (idea not specific techniques)
- Safety
- Substance
Free trip
- Challenge
by Choice
- Good Communication
and Listening between group members
- Debriefing
- Respect
for Others
During the
course of a trip, there are a number of decisions that will need
to be made by the whole group. These might include things like
where to camp, which route to take, whether to rest for the afternoon
or do a side hike, etc. Group decision making can be a powerful
learning and growth tool for the group. It can also be a place
for conflict to develop. The first thing to determine is whether
it is a decision that can and should be made by the group, or
with input from the group, or is it a decision to be made solely
by the leaders. Obviously some issue, such as those that involve
safety, will be made by the leaders. To present such a decision
to the group suggets that they have authority to make the decision,
and if the leaders disagree, they must countermand the group's
decision. Also some decision-making can lead to splitering the
group. Both of these can lead to bad feelings by the group members
and damage the postive group spirit and interaction leaders have
worked to facilitate. Avoid this problem by thinking ahead and
determining what decisions are appropriate for the group to make.
It may be better for the leaders to make the decision from their
status as authorities, that to give the decision to the group
and have the process lead to negative outcomes. Leaders will also
need to decide if they should be involved in the decision process,
or "sit it out." Sometime the presence and perceived authority
of the leaders can slant the decision making process. However,
in certain situations, this can work to your advantage as a leader.
Making good group decisions involves a process, which the leaders
may have to state or model as a norm for the group to follow.
Decision
Strategies
- Authority
Decides - In this case the decision is made by the leaders
by virtue of their role of being responsible for the trip or
by some person determined to have the greatest knowledge about
the topic. This process can be very effective when the individual(s)
have significantly more knowledge than the other members of
the group. It is also very efficient in terms of time. In some
cases, getting feedback from the group may be essential for
the leaders to have all the facts in order to make a good decision.
For example, if the leaders have to decide about changing the
route, they need to know the physical and mental state of all
the participants. The most common scenario for this decision
making process is a safety or emergency situation. Here the
leaders need to take charge of the group. Keep in mind that
some individuals, even though they may be the most knowledgeable,
may not be good at making decisions. Making effective decisions
is a skill that all leaders should develop. If things seem to
be breaking down and a decision is not being made, you may have
to move to another method.
- Majority
Vote - In this case members of the group are polled and
the option that receives support from the greatest number in
the group is chosen. This strategy works well if everyone agrees
to be bound by it, and if everyone feels they have a chance
to express their viewpoints and needs. However, it can lead
to splitting of the group. Once again leaders should evaluate
if this method will be a positive or negatice experience for
the group.
- Consensus
- This is the most effective method of making a group decision
in terms of members feeling included. Consensus decision making
means reaching a decision that all members of the group are
willing to support at some level. In order to reach this point,
everyone in the group must be given ample time to express their
view and time to express their disagrement with other's views.
Through a process of negotiation, the group moves to an idea
that everyone can place some level of support in. this process
can take a great deal of time and "perfect consensus" is almost
never reached. Make sure that you have the time before embarked
on this as you approach. It is counter-productive to start with
the consensus process and then have to give it up to make the
decision some other way because you don't have enough time.
In all of
these strategies it is important for leaders to model good listeining
and communication skills. Leaders may need to act as facilitators
for effective communication through such things as asking people
not to interrupt others, quieting dominant members of the group,
and asking quieter members to speak up.
Group Decision
Making Process
- Set goal(s)
& prioritize them
- Brainstorm
options for achieving goals
- Evaluate
the different options and examine how the options meet the goal(s)
- Determine
the decisio-making strategy to be used (see above)
- Decide
on an option using one of the following criteria
- Best
serves highest priority goals
- Best
serves all goals
- Serves
goals without creating any negative outcomes
- Creates
the least negative outcomes
Conflict
Conflict
can always arise in group settings. Conflict occurs when there
are differences in:
- Needs
- Perceptions
- Goals
- Experience
- Values
These differences
can be between individuals or between sub-groups within the group.
Many times the conflict is due to lack of communication between
people. If people understand the needs, values, perceptions, etc.
of others in the group, then conflict can often be avoided. This
is why one of the important roles of the leaders is to set the tome
of the trip and introduce the basic goals, norms and values (see
Group Development above). This gives all of the participants a common
understanding of what is expected and can help prevent conflict.
There are two major goals you must take into account when dealing
with conflict situations:
- Achieving
personal goals (task orientation)
- Keeping
good relationships with the other persons (relationship orientation).
These two
issues may run up against one another. How you deal with balancing
these two goals is important.
When faced
with an interpersonal conflict, here are some of the techniques
to use to help resolve or mediate the conflict.
- Compensation
- ask yourself if the behavior you are seeing is compensation
for something else. Try to identify the root issue and deal
with that.
- Accept
the person but you don't have to accept the behavior.
- Quote
OA Policies when necessary. This can take the "burden" off you
as the leader. Saying, "this is OA policy and I am required
to follow it as the individual responsible for leading this
trip." This can displace participant frustration from the leader
to the OA Program Director.
- Quickly
correct inappropriate language or other problems. Don't let
bad patterns get started and supported in the group.
- Know how
much to push.
- It is
OK for leaders to use their authority to set standards. You
can do this in a problem situation by letting others know that
they are not comfortable with certain actions. Example, "I'm
not comfortable with people doing unsupervised climbing so don't
do it."
Problems
can often be divided into personality related or physically related
(injury, environment). Some possible situations are given below.
- Correcting
Group Action/Decision
- Is
there a safety consideration?
- Is
the decision necessary to correct?
If the answer
to either of these questions is yes, the decision must
be changed, in doing so:
- Act
quickly to avoid safety problems.
- Be
subtle in transmitting information. It may be just to one
participant and not involve the rest of the group.
- Maintain
the worth of all group members and their input even though
you must alter the decision.
- When dealing
with someone having difficulty with a challenge:
- Move
the situation to focus on something outside the person.
- Break
it into discrete, do-able parts.
- Refocus
the persons on a level of challenge appropriate to them.
- If a person
is creating a problem it is essential to accept the person
and let them know they are still important, but you do not
have to accept the behavior. Make it clear that the problematic
behavior cannot continue.
- Feeling
of lack of control leading to fear can be one of the greatest
motivations for negative behavior. If someone is behaving negatively,
they may be compensating and trying to create a sense of self-empowerment
and control. When you see negative behavior ask yourself what
needs for that person are not being met that may be resulting
in negative, compensating behavior.
- In dealing
with problems try to turn the problem into a solution - flip
it 180 degrees. "Your disability is your opportunity." - Kurt
Hahn
Example:
Sarah is constantly hiking ahead of the group. She is in good
shape and out distances everyone else. She thinks the group is
too slow and everyone should catch up with her. Let her know that
the challenge for some other is just hiking. She doesn't have
that challenge. Instead her challenge is to slow her pace down
and stay back with the others using her strength to help the others.
You have flipped a problem into a solution.
Sometimes
you may get into a situation where the other person is really
having difficulty and their behavior is getting out of control,
what is often known as an "in your face" situation. Here are some
techniques you can use to settle the situation out.
- Recognize
from early on when you are in an "in your face" situation or
when things are escalating in that direction
- Don't
just enter a conversation expecting your own outcomes. Recognize
what the other person's outcomes may be. Not being sensitive
to the other person's needs can often escalte things into "in
your face."
- Know when
to put off a conversation until another time. Sometimes emotions
are running too high to have a productive conversation.
- Know when
the discussion needs to be private. Other times you may want
corroboration from your co-leader that can't come with a private
discussion.
- Don't
interrupt people. If someone is out of control, interruption
probably won't get them back in control. Best to let them have
their say completely and then comment if it seems appropriate.
- Give up
being invested in making your own point. If things are out of
control, you don't want to feed the fire by trying to get your
own point across. Let it be, at least til later. Spend your
energies trying to reduce the anxiety. After things have calmed
down, have another discussion if necessary to get back to your
points.
- Go into
active listening mode. Rephrase the person's comments so they
know you have heard them. Read between the lines and ask yourself
what is going on with this person that is motivating them to
act this way. Remember compensating behaviors. If appropriate,
you can tell them you disagree with their points and list your
reasons.
- As you
rephrase the person's statements, be prepared to apologize if
your find that they have interpreted you in an objectionable
way. "It sounds as if you are frustrated with my telling you
that you can't hike by yourself. I apologize if that offends
you, however, it is the standard OA policy that the group should
stay together for safety reasons."
- Don't
raise your voice or change your physical presence. Stay cool
and collected. Changes indicating your anxiety will only raise
the level of tension.
- Monitor
your tension level. Be prepared to clamp down on it. Take a
psychological "deep breath" and chill. This process may need
to go on while the other person is talking.
The following
are some common personalities and situations that may appear on
an OA trip. It is useful to think about how you would respond
to the needs of this person and perhaps to the needs of the group.
- Group
comes to a trail junction, hiking either route is possible.
Half of the group wants to head down to the river while the
other half wants to head up to the ridge. People start to argue
about choice.
- One of
the participants, John, has been hiking 1/4 mile ahead of the
group all day. When you ask him to slow up and hike with the
group he says: you all should catch up with me.
- Tom, one
of the group members has been having trouble hiking since the
first day of the trip. He has blisters from his new boots. He
has to stop frequently to rest. At one stop he says he wants
to quit and leave. He's sick of holding everyone up.
- It's been
raining since early morning. The trail has been rocky and the
wet rocks have been slippery making walking treacherous. Everyone
is cold and damp and frustrated. No one is saying anything.
The planned campsite is still 2 miles away.
- Suzie
always seems to hang out by herself. She doesn't say much during
the day hiking. In the evening when the group is playing games
and getting camp set up, Suzie goes off by himself.
- Sam and
Jill are the two OA leaders. Sam feels that Jill is be too active
in the group always telling the participants what to do: put
the tarp over there, the stove there, Jill always cooks dinner,
etc. Sam tried to tell Jill to back off a bit. She tells him
that she's lead more trips than he has and she knows what she's
doing. Sam has stopped trying to change the situation.
- Eric and
Betty have signed on to the trip as boyfriend and girlfriend.
They spend all their time hiking together. When the group comes
into camp they wander off by themselves. Several of the group
members are grumbling that they don't help out with camp chores.
- The group
has been canoeing down a flat stretch of the Delaware. Greg
and Bill have been acting pretty wild all day. The group pulls
into a campsite above the first rapid of the trip. While everyone
is getting into dry clothes and setting up camp, Greg and Bill
slip off and paddle down through the rapid. The leaders hear
them laughing and yelling after the canoe swamps.
- Dave is
a participant on a Freshmen Trip. He's been backpacking before
and brought all his own equipment. He acts the part of the tough
outdoorsman all the time. Putting down people who are having
trouble carrying their weight or hiking up steep grades. The
other members of the group are getting pissed off at him and
generally feel that he is a jerk.
- You are
the leader on a backpacking trip. You have set up camp early
and everyone is hanging out on their own before dinner. You
are coming back through the woods after taking a dump and you
smell marijuana. As you peer through the trees you see two of
your group smoking.
- Joe and
Sara are leading a backpacking trip with 6 guys and 5 girls.
The guys tend to hang out together and are pretty crazy, a little
immature. The women don't really want to have much to do with
the guys and stay together.
- The group
has pulled into camp after a long day of hiking. There's 1/2
hour of daylight left. Steve, a participant, tells Julie (another
participant) that he is going to head up the hill to catch the
view before sunset. An hour later everyone is gathering at the
stoves to start dinner. One of the leaders, Lisa, asks where
Steve is. No one has seen him since Julie did. It is now dark.
- The group
has been hiking along a rocky section of the AT. Alice steps
into a pothole and falls over. She immediately starts screaming
that her ankle is broken. The group stops and while the leaders
attend to Alice the rest of the group shuffles around nervously
anxious about Alice and unsure what to do.
OA has the
potential to be an extremely valuable learning experience for
many people. The key to making it such an experience is transference;
encouraging the person to transfer the things they have learned
about themselves and dealing with others from the trip back to
their daily lives. The method for facilitating transference is
debriefing. The idea behind debriefing is to get the participants
to think and analyze their experience. There are numerous forms
of debriefing some which can be done throughout the trip. There
also should be a final debriefing at the end of the trip, to bring
the trip to closure and allow an opportunity for reflection.
Processing
is an integral part of the Thaw-Shift-Refreeze process. It is
through processing that participants are able to take the experience
and reframe it in a larger context that they can apply in other
areas of their life. In order to do so participants will need
to reflect upon the experiences they have had, how they felt,
reacted, and explore how they can use this new knowledge and experience.
The essence of processing is self-disclosure, either to other
participants or to oneself. Processing through shared group discussion
is a symmetrical communication process which creates rapport and
bonding. Through self-disclosure students learn more about themselves
and learn how others experienced things similarly or differently.
All of these insights can help lead to personal growth. You should
think of processing as a regular part of your trip planning process,
just like laying out a route or buying food. It is important to
have some time each day for reflecting on the experience and tapping
in to how people are doing and feeling.
When to
Process
Leaders need
to be sensitive to when to utilize processing techniques. Both
for the group as a whole and when individuals in the group may
need to process an experience. Here are some guidelines:
- Daily
basis - on a multi-day trip there should be some form of
processing on a daily basis. This can involve informal discussions
about the day after dinner at night. This will help the leaders
track where participants and the group are and help them plan
what sorts of challenges and activities they may be ready for
the next day.
- Before
a Challenging Activity - when the group is going to be doing
something readily identifiable as a challenge (rock climbing,
high ropes course) it may be useful to do some processing about
the experience that is coming and how people are feeling about
it.
- After
a Challenging Activity - after a challenge participants
may need to sit down and process what happened to them. Depending
on logistical issues this might happen immediately afterwards
or sometime later.
- When
an individual is having difficulty - recognize when an individual
is in a high stress situation and needs processing to deal with
it immediately. This may need to be done outside of the group.
- At
the end of the trip - as a time to bring the whole experience
together.
- Open
Forum - with this approach you bring the group together
and provide an opening statement in anticipation that the group
will volunteer their perceptions and insights. An example of
an opening statement that you might want to use is "I'm interested
in hearing peoples' reactions to today's peak ascent".
- Questioning
- this entails the development of a set of questions that you
would like participants to respond to after they have completed
the activity. The value of this pre-planning is that you establish
specific objectives that you would like to achieve for the session.
Through the identification of objectives you can develop questions
that focus in on the specific issues that you would like to
see addressed at this time. The sequence of questions that you
use will vary according to your personal style. However, we
suggest that you begin with the concrete and slowly *move on
to more insightful types of questions. A general sequence that
you may want to consider involves the use of three simple questions:
'What happened?', 'What did you learn?', How can you use this
knowledge in the future?' Additional questions that you may
want to consider appear in the section on questions for the
levels of processing on pages.
- Rounds
- a round is an activity in which every member of the group
is asked to respond to a stimulus that you have presented to
the group. Rounds are a very valuable tool to make use of. When
time is an issue the use of a designated word or number round
or a word or phrase round is useful for getting people to reflect
and communicate in an expedient manner. It also gives the leader
some important information about individuals that you can use
as you transition from activity to activity or can follow up
on at a later time either individually or with the group. Other
advantages of using rounds are that they can be used at the
beginning of group discussion to get members focused. Rounds
give each person time to think about what they are going to
say and also they get to hear what other people think about
the topic of discussion. They also get individuals to think
in greater depth about a specific issue. As will be discussed
later in the section on reluctant individuals, rounds allow
you to get everyone involved and finally the use of rounds permits
you as the group leader to survey the group to get a general
reading of how people are thinking and feeling. This can provide
you with a quick survey of how things are going and provide
stimulus for deciding what issues to focus on with the group
at this time or in the near future. When using rounds it is
a positive practice to vary the starting point so that different
members get to speak first and last. At times you will want
to begin with the person who you know is comfortable sharing
his or her ideas. This will get the conversation flowing with
energy and enthusiasm. This train of thought may also be extended
to negative and positive energy people who are members of the
group. By beginning with a positive energy person and trying
to end with a positive energy individual, you can avoid the
pitfall of allowing the negative energy member to shift the
focus of the group if that is not appropriate at this given
time. Finally, you may want to think about where you want to
end the round especially if you have an individual that you
know is reluctant to talk or who you know is in need of some
help.
- Designated
Word or Number Round - this can be done very quickly since each
member is asked to respond with either a single designated word
or a number on a scale, which is usually from 1 to 10. A few
examples include: "I would like each of you to think of your
role during the last event and choose one of the following labels
to describe it. 'leader', or 'follower.'" "On a scale from 1-10,
how would you rate your commitment to the course right now",
or "On a scale from 1-10, how comfortable are you being a member
of this group right now. A 1 means that you are not comfortable
at all and a 10 indicates that you are very comfortable."
- Word or
Phrase Round - in this type of round group members are asked
to respond with only a word or a short phrase. A few examples
include: "I would like each of you to think of an adjective
that describes how you feel right now." or "I'd like to hear
from everyone, so 1 would like you to think of a word or a phrase
that describes how you think we handled the last initiative."
- Comment
Rounds - in this type of round group members are asked to share
more than a few words either because the question calls for
more than word or phrase or because there is a desire to have
individuals express more than just a few words. Examples that
you may want to consider using are: "I would like to hear a
brief reaction from each of you in regards to how you think
that we are working as a group." "How did you feel about your
experience on the ropes course? Let's do a round and hear from
everyone."
- Rounds
- leaders give the beginning of a sentence or phrase and ask
for a brief response
- One
word or number (ex. Were you a leader or follower today?
How would you rate your feelings about the group today on
a scale of 1-10)
- Adjectives
(ex. Give an adjective that describes how today went for
you)
- Word
or phrase (ex. How did you do today? Give me a word or phrase
that describes your day.)
- Fill
in the blank (I am happy that today I __________.)
2. Writing
- Free form
writing
- Assigning
processing questions for participants to write about
- Writing
Activity Sheets - incomplete sentences to fill out, statements
to complete (ex. I am confident in myself because...)
- Poetry,
Haiku - specific forms that create a more focused style for
writing that may be challenging in their own right for participants
- Write
letter to yourself, open it in one month
- Group
journals - students can write at will or different students
can be "assigned" each day.
3. Dyads
- two person conversations, increases the amount of personal involvement,
useful before large group sessions
4. Small
Group discussions
5. Time
Alone
- Solo -
make sure that you have set up proper safety guidelines when
doing solos in a wilderness context
- Solitary
hiking - spread the group out enough so that people can't talk,
but you should be able to see the person in front of you, one
leader at point one leader at sweep.
6. Drawing
- often produces disequilibrium for adults, provides an avenue
for those who aren't as verbal
- Life Spiral
- draw a spiral with your birth at the center, close your eyes
and point to a spot. Write or talk about why that spot on the
time-line off your life is important
- Symbol
- create a symbol that you feel represents you and explain why
- Personal
shield - draw a shield and add items to your "crest." Explain
why you picked particular items to represent you.
- Structure
regular periods of time throughout the trip. Let people know
from the beginning that you will spend time reflecting.
- Vary the
style and methods used
- Alternate
times of day (if you always do it at the end of the day, people
will almost always be tired)
- Provide
sufficient "wait time" for people to think before responding.
Also prevents "quick people" from jumping in all the time.
- Ask open
ended questions (ex. What did you think was most challenging
part of the day? instead of How many people thought the
rock climbing was the most chal
