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Reflections on September 11: Lessons From Four Psychological Perspectives
 Kevin Lanning, Honors College, Florida Atlantic University / Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2002, pp. 27­34 / © 2002 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Several of the major theoretical perspectives within psychology can contribute to our understanding of the September 11 attacks and their aftermath. An argument derived from the psychodynamic approach suggests that terrorism may be a product of ambivalence rather than anger. From an evolutionary standpoint, the resentment that breeds terrorism, and the altruism that has arisen in its wake, may be seen as two sides of the same coin. The decision theoretic approach suggests that in the attempt to prevent future terrorist attacks, we face a seeming tradeoff between civil rights and civil liberties. Finally, the personality development approach suggests that difficult times can help forge new moral leaders.

Traditional personality theories have been ambitious in scope, simultaneously aspiring to understand individual differences, cultural comparisons, and universals of human nature--the ways in which we are "like all other men, like some other men, and like no other man" (Kluckhohn, Murray, & Schneider, 1953). These three levels of analysis are a convenient framework to begin considering the role of psy-
chology in the tragic events of September 11.
At the level of the individual, we might strive to understand the personality of Mohammed Atta, alleged to have piloted the first plane to slam into the World Trade Center, or that of New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, whose leadership inthe wake of the crisis was widely hailed. But while biography is compelling, it is easy to overestimate the role of the individual in shaping history (Boring, 1950), just as it is easy to neglect situational factors in understanding behavior (Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz, 1977).
Similarly, at the level of culture, we might strive to understand the strain of Islamic fundamentalism of the al-Qaida group, as well as the preoccupations that were the stuff of American lives prior to the tragedy. There is no doubt that many of us in the West have little understanding of the many variants of Islam. But while the psychological study of culture can illuminate, it risks, particularly in the current mood, a reification of seeming differences, and can too readily lead to a depersonalization of the other.
It is the third level of analysis that seems most compelling in the wake of September 11. The traditional personality theories of the last century were, in large part, a response to world wars and economic struggles.

From Psychodynamics: The Importance of Ambivalence and Anxiety
What are the roots of the hatred against America? Though Osama bin Laden has not accepted responsibility for the events of September 11, he remains the prime suspect as the instigator of the attack, and several years prior to the attack, he issued a declaration of war against America. The rationale behind his fatwa was ostensibly the continued U.S. military presence in Saudi Arabia, which has been
characterized as an occupation of holy land by infidels. But the phenomenon to be understood is not the fatwa itself, but the willingness of his followers to adhere to it. The key lesson of the psychodynamic perspective is that we may not be aware of the motives governing our behavior, a lesson that has been reinforced by innumerable studies in experimental psychology (e.g., Erdelyi, 1985; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). So while the fatwa and, behind it, the presence of American troops on sacred soil may be the conscious motive in the minds of the followers of Osama bin Laden, other motives may also be salient in energizing anti-American sentiment.

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