Piaget
Swis biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a
highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget's theory is based on the
idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures - in other words, mental "maps,"
schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences
within his or her environment. Piaget further atested that a child's cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as
crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.

Discussion
Piaget's theory identifies four developmental stages and the proceses by which children
progres through them. The four stages are:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old) -The child, throughphysical interaction with
his or her environment, builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This
is thestagewherea childdoesnotknow that physicalobjects remaininexistence even
when out of sight (object permanance).

2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) - The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly
and neds concrete physical situations.

3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) - As physical experience accumulates, the child starts
to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experi-
ences. Abstract problem solving is also posible at this stage. For example, arithmetic
equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.

4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) - By this point, the child's cognitive
structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.

Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During al develop-
ment stages, the child experiences his or her environmentusing whatever mentalmaps he or
she hasconstructedso far. If the experience is a repeated one, it ts easily-or is asimilated
- into the child's cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental "equilibrium." If
the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive
structure to acommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more and more
adequate cognitive structures.

How Piaget's Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum - Educators must plan a developmentaly-appropriate curiculum that en-hances their students' logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction - Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences - or interactions
with the surounding environment - play in student learning.

2 Erik Erikson's Developmental Stages
Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson describes the physical, emotional, and psychological stages of
human development, and relates specic isues, or developmental work or tasks to each
stage.

Infant (Trust vs. Mistrust)
Needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertainty to trust himself/herself, others, and
the environment. It is esential to create an atmosphere of care - a sense that a child feels
as if s/he exists in the world and is valuable.

Toddler (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt)
Works to master physical environment while maintaining self-estem. Here, the toddler
wants to be a whole person, ready to take on the world and moves past immediate rewards
and punishments. This is the beginning of the child's realizing that s/he is a person that
has rights. It is esential, at this stage, to give some choices while ensuring that rules are
folowed and that adults are in charge. The child wil make some unsafe gestures, so it is
important for caregivers to be vigilant.

Preschooler (Initiative vs. Guilt)
Begins to initiate, not imitate, activities; develops conscience and sexual identity. S/he
realizes that s/he can begin an activity, not just be told what to do. The child begins to
make some sense of "right" and "wrong." It is important to talk with the child calmly and
with reason in the proces of helping her/him develop a sense of moral judgment.

School-Age Child (Industry vs. Inferiority)
Tries to develop a sense of self-worth by rening skils. A school-age child learns to
distinguish betwen himself and the others in terms of judgment. What am I good at? How
am I doing? It is here that the child begins to try dierent activities to test some theories
about who s/he is. It is important to provide an atmosphere of trust, experimentation,
and praise for accomplishments, while minimizing competition betwen students where the
result is lowered self esteem. Try to bolster the condence of ALL students.

Adolescent (Identity vs. Role Confusion)
Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete, worker) into a self-image,
taking into considerationother adults and otheradolescents. Aroundthe world, adolescence
is not an easy task. It is a time of resistance against parents and teachers in order to
distinguishoneself. Risk-taking can bemuchmore dangerous. The role ofidentity is crucial,
here, and it is important for students to se the consequences of their behavior, rather than
to protect them from life. At the same time, their intelectual abilities are blosoming, and
so it is quite important to respect the inteligences of adolescents. Finaly, provide them
opportunities that stir their hearts - such as service. The results wil be a vital, active,
interested young person who stands behind her/his beliefs and who tries hard.

Young Adult (Intimacy vs.Isolation)
Learns to make personal commitment to another as spouse, parent or partner. At this
time, colege-age students are beginning to see who they are and what they can do. They
think about long-termcommitments andabouta"denition" forthemselves. It is important
to listen carefuly and, as a caretaker stil, respect their ability to make their own choices.

Middle-Age Adult (Generativity vs Stagnation)
Seeks satisfaction through productivity in carer, family, and civic interests.

Older Adult (Integrity vs. Despair)
Reviews life acomplishments, deals with los and preparation for death.

3 Constructivism
Introduction
The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism," and it is appliedboth to
learning theory and to epistemology (to how people learn and to the nature of knowledge).
What is it? What does it have to tel us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it
to our work? What is constructivism?
Theterm refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves -each learner
individualy (and socialy) builds meaning - as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is
learning. The dramatic consequences of this view are two-fold:

1. We have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/leson
to be taught):

2. There is no knowledge independent of the meaning atributed to experience (con-
structed) by the learner, or community of learners.

Although it appearsradicalonaneveryday level, it is a position that has been frequently
adopted eversince people began to ponder epistemology (the nature of knowledge). If we
acept constructivist theory, we have to recognize that there is no such thing as knowledge "out there" independent of the knower, but only knowledge we construct for ourselves as
we learn.
Learning is not understanding the "true" nature of things, nor is it remembering dimly
perceived perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social construction of meaning out of
the bewildering aray of sensations that have no order or structure besides the explanations
that we fabricate for them.
The more important question is: Does it actualy make any difference in our everyday
workwhether dep down we consider knowledge to be about some "real"worldindependent
of us, or whether we consider knowledge to be of our own making? The answer is "Yes, it
does make a difference," because of the first point suggested above: in our profesion our
epistemological views dictate our pedagogic views.
If we believe that knowledge consists of learning about the real world out there, then we
endeavor first and foremost to understand that world, organize it in the most rational way
posible, and,as teachers, presentit to the learner. This view may stil engageusin providing
the learner with activities, with hands-on learning, with opportunities to experiment and
manipulate the objects ofthe world, but the intention is always to make clear to the learner
the structure of the world independent of the learner. We help the learner understand the
world, but we don't ask him to construct his or her own world.
In many cultures, the history of learning never considered the learner. The task of the
teacher was to make clear to the learner the working of this "machine" and any accommo-
dation to the learner was only to account for different appropriate entry points for different
learners. Times have changed.
Constructivist theory requires that we turn our atention by 180 degres; we must turn
our back on any idea of an "al-encompasing machine" that describes nature and, instead,
look towards al those wonderful, individual living beings - the learners - each of whom
creates his or her own model to explain nature. If we acept the constructivist position, we
are inevitably required to folow a pedagogy which argues that we must provide learners
with the opportunity to: a) interact with sensory data, and b) construct their own world.
This second point is a litle harder for us to swalow, and most of us constantly vacilate
betwen faith that our learners wil inded construct meaning that we will find aceptable
(whatever we mean by that) and our ned to construct meaning for them; that is, to
structure situations that are not fre for learners to cary out their own mental actions, but
"learning" situations that channel them into our ideas about the meaning of experience.

4 Principles of Learning
What are some guidingprinciples ofconstructivist thinking thatwemustkepinmind when
we consider our role as educators? Here is an outline of a few ideas, al predicated on the
belief that learning consists of individuals' constructed meanings:

1. Learning is an active proces in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (John Dewey's term) stresing that the learner neds to do something;that learning is not the pasive acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner engaging with the world.

2. People learn to learn as they learn . Learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us beter able to give meaning to other sensations that can fit a similar patern.

3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental. It happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necesary for learning, especialy for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as wel as the hands (Dewey caled this reflective activity).

4. Learning involves language.The language we use inuences learning. On the empirical level, researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn.
On a more general level, there is a colection of arguments, presented most forcefuly
by Vygotsky, that language and learning are bound together.

5. Learning is a social activity. Our learning is intimately asociated with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our pers, our family, as well as casual acquaintances, including the people before us ornext to us. We are more likely to be sucessful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education is directed towards isolating the learner from al social interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one relationship betwen the learner and the objective material to be learned. In contrast, progresive education recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.

6. Learning is contextual.We do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives - we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears.
On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actualy a corolary of the idea that
learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

7. One needs knowledge to learn. It is not posible to asimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more weknow, the morewe canlearn. Therefore any effort toteach must be connected to the state of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.

8. It takes time to learn. Learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning to occur, we need to revisit ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them, and use them. If you reflect on anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especialy, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.

9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning; it is esential for learning. This idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unles we know"the reasons why," we maynot become engaged in using the knowledge that maybe instilled in us, even bythe most severe and direct teaching.

5 Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists dene learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as auniversal learning proces. There
are two different types of conditioning each yielding a different behavioral patern:

1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most
popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even se food. Essentialy, animals and people are biologicaly "wired" so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.

2. Behavioral or operant conditioning ocurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basicaly, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement folows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a bal in a mini-aley. There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

• Behaviorism does not acount foralkindsof learning,since itdisregards theactivities
of the mind.

• Behaviorism does not explain some learning such as the recognition of new language
paterns by young children - for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.

How Behaviorism Impacts Learning
This theoryis relatively simple to understandbecause it relies only on observable behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement
techniques can be effective - both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such
as autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or
punish student behaviors.

6 Brain-Based Learning & Neuroscience

This learning theory is based on the structure and function of the brain. As long as the
brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its normal proceses, learning wil occur.
Discussion
People oftensay thateveryone can learn. The reality isthateveryonedoes learn. Every
person is born with a brain that functions as an immensely powerful procesor. Traditional
schooling, however, often inhibits learning by discouraging, ignoring,or punishing the brain's natural learning proceses.

The core principles of brain-based learning state that:

1. The brain is a paralel procesor, meaning it can perform several activities at once, like tasting and smeling.
2. Learning engages the whole physiology.
3. The search for meaning is innate.
4. The search for meaning comes through paterning.
5. Emotions are critical to paterning.
6. The brain proceses wholes and parts simultaneously.
7. Learning involves both focused atention and peripheral perception.
8. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious proceses.
9. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.
10. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory.
11. Learning is enhanced by chalenge and inhibited by threat.

The thre instructional techniques asociated with brain-based learning are:

• Orchestrated immersion - creating learning environments that fuly immerse students
in an educational experience;

• Relaxed alertnes- eliminating fear in learners, while maintaining ahighly chalenging
environment;

• Active procesing - alowing the learner to consolidate and internalize information by
actively procesing it.

How Brain-Based Learning Impacts Education
Curriculum - Teachers must design learning around student interests and make learning
contextual.
Instruction - Educators let students learn in teams and use peripheral learning. Teach-
ers structure learning around real problems, encouraging students to also learn in setings
outside the clasroom and the school building.
Assessment - Since al students are learning, their asesment should alow them to
understand their own learning styles and preferences; students monitor and enhance their
own learning proces.
What Brain-Based Learning Suggests
How the brain works has a significant impact on what kinds of learning activities are
most effective. Educators need to help students have appropriate experiences and capitalize
on those experiences. Educator Renate Caine ilustrates this point by describing three
interactive elements esential to this process:

1. Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that are both rich
and real. One excelent example is immersing students in a different culture to teach
them a second language. Educators must take advantage of the brain's ability to
paralel proces.

2. Students must have a personaly meaningful chalenge. Such chalenges stimulate a
student's mind to the desired state of alertnes.

3. Inorder for a student togain insight about aproblem, there must be intensiveanalysis
of the different ways to approach it, and about learning in general. This is what's
known as the "active procesing of experience."

A few other tenets of brain-based learning include:

1. Fedback is best when it comes from reality, rather than from an authority figure.
2. People learn best when solving realistic problems.
3. The big picture can't be separated from the details.
4. Because every brain is different, educators should alow learners to customize their
   own environments.
5. The best problem solvers are those that laugh!

Designers of educational tools must be artistic in their creation of brain-friendly envi-
ronments. Instructors need to realize that the best way to learn is not through lecture, but
by participation in realistic environments that let learners try new things safely.

7 Learning Styles

This approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and proces
information in very dierent ways. The learning styles theory implies that how much indi-
viduals learn has more to do withwhether the educationalexperience is geared toward their
particular style of learning than whether or not they are "smart." In fact, educators should
not ask, "Is this student smart?" but rather " How is this student smart?"
Discussion
The concept of learning styles is rooted in the clasification of psychological types. The
learning styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, asthe result of heredity, up-
bringing, and curent environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to both
perceive and proces information differently. The different ways of doing so are generaly
classified as:
Concrete and Abstract Perceivers - Concrete perceivers absorb information through
direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take
in information through analysis, observation, and thinking.
Active and Reflective Procesors - Active procesors make sense of an experience by
immediately using the new information. Reective procesors make sense of an experience
by reflecting on and thinking about it.
Traditional schooling tends to favor abstract perceiving and reflective procesing. Other
kinds of learning aren't rewarded and reflected in curiculum, instruction, and asesment
nearly as much.
How the Learning Styles Theory Impacts Education
Curiculum -Educators must place emphasis on intuition, feling, sensing, and imagina-
tion in addition to the traditional skils of analysis, reason, and sequential problem solving.
Instruction - Teachers should design their instruction methods to connect with al four
learning styles using various combinations of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and
experimentation. Instructors can introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into the
clasroom such as sound, music, visuals, movement, experience, and talking.
Assestment - Teachers should employ a variety of assestment techniques focusing on the
development of "whole brain" capacity and each of the different learning styles.

This theory of the structure and functions of the mind suggests that the two different
sides of the brain control two different "modes" of thinking. It also suggests that each of us prefers one mode over the other.
Discussion
Experimentation has shown thatthe two different sides, or hemispheres, of the brain are
responsible for different manners of thinking. The folowing table ilustrates the differences
betwen left-brain and right-brain thinking:

• Left Brain Right Brain
• Logical Random
• Sequential Intuitive
• Rational Holistic
• Analytical Synthesizing
• Objective Subjective
• Looks at partsLooks at wholes

Most individuals have a distinct preference for one of these styles of thinking. Some,
however, are more whole-brained and equaly adept at both modes. In general, schools
have favored left-brain modes of thinking while downplaying the right-brain ones. Left-
brain scholastic subjects focus on logical thinking, analysis, and acuracy. Right-brained
subjects, on the other hand, focus on aesthetics, feeling, and creativity.

How Right-Brain vs. Left-Brain Thinking Impacts Learning
Curriculum - In order to be more "whole-brained" in their orientation, schools need to
give equal weight to the arts, creativity, and the skils of imagination and synthesis.
Instruction - To foster a more whole-brained scholastic experience, teachers should use
instruction techniques that connect with both sides of the brain. They can increase their
clasroom's "right-brain" learning activities by incorporating more paterning, metaphors,
analogies,roleplaying,visuals, and movement into their reading, calculation,and analytical
activities.
Assestment-For a more accurate whole-brained evaluation of student learning, educators
must develop new forms of asesment that honor right-brained talents and skills.

9 Control Theory
This theory of motivation, developed by Wiliam Glaser, aserts that behavior is never
caused by a responseto an outsidestimulus. Instead, thecontroltheory statesthatbehavior
is inspired by what a person wants most at any given time: survival, love, power, freedom,
or any other basic human need.
Discusion
Responding to complaints that today's students are "unmotivated," Glaseratests that
al living creatures "control" their behavior to maximize their need satisfaction. According
to Glaser, if students are not motivated to do their schoolwork, it's because they view
schoolwork as irelevant to their basic human neds.

"Bos" teachers use rewards and punishment to coerce students to comply with rules
and complete required asignments. Glaser cals this "leaning on your shovel" work. He
shows how high percentages of students recognize that the work they do - even when their
teachers praise them - is low-level work.
"Lead" teachers, on the other hand, avoid coercion completely. Instead, they make
the intrinsic rewards of doing the work clear to their students, corelating any proposed
asignments to the students' basic neds. Plus,they onlyuse gradesas temporary indicators
of what has and hasn't ben learned, rather than as a reward. Lead teachers will "Ought to
protect" highly engaged, deeply motivated students who are doing quality work from having to full meaningles requirements.
How the Control Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum -Teachers must negotiate both content and method with students. Students'
basic needs literaly help shape how and what they are taught.
Instruction - Teachers rely on cooperative, active learning techniques that enhance the
power of the learners. Lead teachers make sure that al asignments meet some degree of
theirstudents' nedsatisfaction. This secures student loyalty, which caries the clasthrough
whatever relatively meaningles tasks might be necesary to satisfy offcial requirements.
Asesment - Instructors only give "good grades" - those that certify quality work - to
satisfy students' need for power. Courses for which a student doesn't earn a "good grade"
are not recorded on that student's transcript. Teachers grade students using an absolute
standard, rather than a relative "curve."

10 Metacognition

Metacognition is the proces of thinking about thinking. According to Flavel, "I am
engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if
it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact." ( p. 232, Flavel,
J.,1976 Metacognitive Aspects of Problem-Solving.).
Discussion
Metacognition has to do with the active monitoring and regulation of cognitive proceses.
Metacognitive processes are central to planning, problem-solving, evaluation, and many
aspects of language learning.
Metacognition is relevant to work on cognitive styles and learning strategies in so far
as the individual has some awarenes of their thinking or learning proceses. The work of
Piaget is also relevant to research on metacognition since it deals with the development of
cognition in children.
Flavel argued that metacognition explains why childrenof different ages deal with learning tasks in different ways, i.e., they have developed new strategies for thinking. Research
studies show that as children get older, they demonstrate more awarenes of their thinking
proceses.

11 Experiential Learning

Carl Rogers distinguishedtwotypes oflearning: cognitive (meaningles)and experiential
(significant). The former coresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary
or multiplication tables, and the later refers to applied knowledge such as learning about
engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning
addreses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on
learner.
Discussion
To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers
aserts that al human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher
is to facilitate such learning. This includes: 1) seting a positive climate for learning; 2)
clarifying the purposes of thelearner; 3)organizing and makingavailable learningresources;
4) balancing intelectual and emotional components of learning; and 5) sharing felings and
thoughts with learners, but not dominating.

According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when:
1. The student participates completely in the learning proces and has control over its
nature and direction.

2. Learning is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal,
or research problems.

3. Self-evaluation is the principal method of asesing progres or succes.

Principles
1. Significant learning takes place when the subject mater is relevant to the personal
interestsofthe student. (For example: A person interestedinbecomingrichmightsek
out books or clases on ecomomics, investment, great financiers, banking, etc. Such
an individual would perceive (and learn) any information provided on this subject in
a much dierent fashion than a person who is asigned a reading or clas.)

2. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.

3. Learning that is threatening to the self (e.g., new atitudes or perspectives) are more
easily asimilated when external threats are at a minimum. Learning proceds faster
when the threat to the self is low.

12 Vygotsky and Social Cognition
The social cognition learning model aserts that culture is the prime determinant of in-
dividual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every
human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child's learning develop-
ment is affected in ways large and smal by the culture (including the culture of the family
environment) in which he or she is enmeshed.
Discussion
Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child's intelectual development. First,
through culture, childrenacquire much of thecontentof their thinking, that is, their knowl-
edge. Second, the surounding culture provides a child with the proceses or means of their
thinking, what Vygotskians cal the tools of "intelectual adaptation." In short, according
to the social cognition learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how
to think.
Cognitive development results from a dialectical proces whereby a child learns through
problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usualy a parent or teacher, but
sometimes a sibling or per. Initialy, the person interacting with the child asumes most of
the responsibility for guidingthe problem solving, but gradualythis responsibility transfers
to the child. Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to
the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture. As learning progreses,
the child's own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intelectual adaptation.
Eventualy, children can use internal language to direct their own behavior. Internalization
refers to the proces of learning - and thereby internalizing - a rich body of knowledge and
tools of thought that first exist outside the child. This happensprimarilythrough language.
A dierence exists betwen what the child can do on her own and what the child can do
with help. Vygotskians cal this dierence the "zone of proximal development."
Since much of what a child learns comes from the culture around her and much of the
child's problem solving is mediated through an adult's help, it is wrong to focus on a child
in isolation. Such focus does not reveal the proceses by which children acquire new skils.
Interactionswithsurounding culture andsocial agents,suchasparents andmorecompetent
pers, contribute significantly to a child's intelectual development.

How Vygotsky Impacts Learning
Curriculum - Since children learn much through interaction, curicula should be designed
to emphasize interaction betwen learners and learning tasks.
Instruction - With appropriate adult help, children can often perform tasks that they
are incapable of completing on their own. With this in mind, scaffolding - where the adult
continualy adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the child's level of performance
- is an effective form of teaching. Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also
instils the skils necesary for independent problem solving in the future.
Assestment - Assestment methods must take into account the "zone of proximal devel-
opment." What children can do on their own is their level of actual development and what
they can do with help is their level of potential development. Two children might have the
same level of actual development, but given the appropriate help from an adult, one might
beable to solvemany moreproblems than the other. Asesment methodsmust targetboth
the level of actual development and the level of potential development.

13 Assignment 3: Towards an Imagined Dialogue
1. What theories and approaches to learning fit with your current attitude towards and/or
method of teaching (3-4 paragraphs)

GOAL: Todepenyourunderstandingofthe similaritiesanddierences betwenseveral
ofthe theories and approaches to learning, and to do so in an asignment that requires both
the "right-brain" (imagination) and "left-brain" (cognitive) functions together.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB LearningCafe by clicking
here1.
Assignment 3: Towards an Imagined Dialogue
Please answer the folowing:
1. Which theories and approaches to learning t with your curent atitude towards
and/or method of teaching? (3-4 paragraphs)
2. Which theories and approaches to learning do you disagre with in part or whole?
Describe your reasons.
3. "The Imagined Dialogue" - Imagine a scene, situation, or seting in which three
characters in a short story, play, or myth met. Have each of the thre characters represent
a different theory/approach to learning or actualy be the person who created the theory.
Through that character's words and actions in this imagined scenario, we wil come to know
something of his/her point of view and theory. This work of action you are creating may
end up to be a serious, playful, learned, combative, funny, or al-of-the-above encounter
betwen these thre characters. To begin, you may wish to brainstorm the seting in which
the thre characters might meet and what each of the characters is "fighting for" or wants
to get from the encounter (after al, most effective dramas include a desired outcome or
something each character wants to acomplish). You are welcome to add other characters
if you wish, either imagined, real, historic, or mythic to be active characters or those who
simply "push a broom acros the stage." This ctitious meeting of these thre characters
(representing each theory) may end up to be 1 page in length.
Be sure to type each of the characters' names first and tel which theory or approach to
learning he or she represents. Then, type the location or seting for the story, and tel when
it takes place. Folow this by writing the actual 1 - page story, play or myth.

14 Assignment 4: Applying Theory
Asignment 4: Applying Theory12
You can also copy the text below, and save it to your disk or computer.
GOAL: To think about how you can apply what you have learned about theories and
approaches to learning to your clasroom practice.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB Learning Cafe by clicking
here13.
Asignment 4: Applying Theory

1. Which education theory are you most atracted to? Why?

2. Which theory are you able to apply to your clasroom? Why?

3. Describe 3 concrete ways you can apply the theory to your clasroom.

4. What kinds of support/resources exist in your school, or nearby schools to help you
cary out these 3 aims? (They may be in the form of people, programs, institutional
partnerships, monetary resources, internships, service projects, databases of organiza-
tional resources available to you.) Describe some of these resources and the concrete
ways in which you can connect with them.

5. What chalenges or obstacles do you face in applying the chosen theory in your clas-
room?

6. What kind of help do you need to overcome these obstacles?

15 Assignment 5: Critical Questions
A wel known Nobel Peace Prize winner once said, "When I came home from school each
day, my mother did not ask me: 'Did you get the answers corect?' Instead, understanding
the value of education as an inquiry into ideas, she would ask: 'Did you ask any good
questions?' That made al the dierence to me." - Elie Wiesel
Asignment 5: Critical Questions14
HOW TO GET TO ASSIGNMENT 5:
One Way
Click on the link in color at the top of the page. When it appears, pres "Save" and
name the le so that you can work on this asignment "o-line." You can type right on the
asignment template. Be sure to save your asignment on a disk or on your computer hard
drive.
Another Way
You can also copy the text below, and save it to your disk or computer.
GOAL: To think about how you can apply what you have learned about theories and
approaches to learning to your school and/or larger community.
GIVE: Feedback to others on their asignments at the TWB Learning Cafe by clicking
here15 .
Asignment 5: Critical Questions
1. Utilizing the knowledge you've gained about educational theories and approaches to
learning, how would you characterize the educational systems in your community?
2. From your perspective, what positive changes in education are curently underway?
What changes are neded?
3. How are you catalyzing positive change or actively participating in the proces?
4. Grati exists on wals al over the world as part self-expresion, part social dialogue.
Type onequestion now on ourcommunity'sQuestion Wal. Read the questions others
have posted on the Question Wal. Add questions to it as the course progreses.
Consider creating a physical "Question Wal" in your clasroom.
To post a question on the Question Wal go to the TWB Learning Cafe by
clicking here16.
HOW TO GET TO THE NEXT MODULE:
Usualy, you justclick"Next" togoto the nextpage. Whenyounisha section, however,
(as you're about to do when you nish reading these two paragraphs), you need to click on
the "Outline"buton, which isonthe botom, right-hand side of the page. Lookunderneath
the blue bar and click on the word "Outline."
When you click on "Outline," a screen wil come up that wil show you the outline for
Course 1. Look for the next section to read and click on the rst topic in that next section.
For example, when you get to the outline now, look under the next section caled "Multiple
Inteligences" and look for the rst topic in black letering caled "Overview." Click on
"Overview."