the sex. Here is another advantage to be
gained from prolonged innocence; you may take advantage of his
dawning sensibility to sow the first seeds of humanity in the
heart of the young adolescent. This advantage is all the greater
because this is the only time in his life when such efforts may
be really successful.
I have always observed that young men, corrupted in early youth
and addicted to women and debauchery, are inhuman and cruel; their
passionate temperament makes them impatient, vindictive, and angry;
their imagination fixed on one object only, refuses all others;
mercy and pity are alike unknown to them; they would have sacrificed
father, mother, the whole world, to the least of their pleasures.
A young man, on the other hand, brought up in happy innocence,
is drawn by the first stirrings of nature to the tender and affectionate
passions; his warm heart is touched by the sufferings of his fellow-creatures;
he trembles with delight when he meets his comrade, his arms can
embrace tenderly, his eyes can shed tears of pity; he learns to
be sorry for offending others through his shame at causing annoyance.
If the eager warmth of his blood makes him quick, hasty, and passionate,
a moment later you see all his natural kindness of heart in the
eagerness of his repentance; he weeps, he groans over the wound
he has given; he would atone for the blood he has shed with his
own; his anger dies away, his pride abases itself before the consciousness
of his wrong-doing. Is he the injured party, in the height of
his fury an excuse, a word, disarms him; he forgives the wrongs
of others as whole-heartedly as he repairs his own. Adolescence
is not the age of hatred or vengeance; it is the age of pity,
mercy, and generosity. Yes, I maintain, and I am not afraid of
the testimony of experience, a youth of good birth, one who has
preserved his innocence up to the age of twenty, is at that age
the best, the most generous, the most loving, and the most lovable
of men. You never heard such a thing; I can well believe that
philosophers such as you, brought up among the corruption of the
public schools, are unaware of it.
Man's weakness makes him sociable. Our common sufferings draw
our hearts to our fellow-creatures; we should have no duties to
mankind if we were not men. Every affection is a sign of insufficiency;
if each of us had no need of others, we should hardly think of
associating with them. So our frail happiness has its roots in
our weakness. A really happy man is a hermit; God only enjoys
absolute happiness; but which of us has any idea what that means?
If any imperfect creature were self-sufficing, what would he have
to enjoy? To our thinking he would be wretched and alone. I do
not understand how one who has need of nothing could love anything,
nor do I understand how he who loves nothing can be happy.
Hence it follows that we are drawn towards our fellow-creatures
less by our feeling for their joys than for their sorrows; for
in them we discern more plainly a nature like our own, and a pledge
of their affection for us. If our common needs create a bond of
interest our common sufferings create a bond of affection. The
sight of a happy man arouses in others envy rather than love,
we are ready to accuse him of usurping a right which is not his,
of seeking happiness for himself alone, and our selfishness suffers
an additional pang in the thought that this man has no need of
us. But who does not pity the wretch when he beholds his sufferings?
who would not deliver him from his woes if a wish could do it?
Imagination puts us more readily in the place of the miserable
man than of the happy man; we feel that the one condition touches
us more nearly than the other. Pity is sweet, because, when we
put ourselves in the place of one who suffers, we are aware, nevertheless,
of the pleasure of not suffering like him. Envy is bitter, because
the sight of a happy man, far from putting the envious in his
place, inspires him with regret that he is not there. The one
seems to exempt us from the pains he suffers, the other seems
to deprive us of the good things he enjoys.
Do you desire to stimulate and nourish the first stirrings of
awakening sensibility in the heart of a young man, do you desire
to incline his disposition towards kindly deed and thought, do
not cause the seeds of pride, vanity, and envy to spring up in
him through the misleading picture of the happiness of mankind;
do not show him to begin with the pomp of courts, the pride of
palaces, the delights of pageants; do not take him into society
and into brilliant assemblies; do not show him the outside of
society till you have made him capable of estimating it at its
true worth. To show him the world before he is acquainted with
men, is not to train him, but to corrupt him; not to teach, but
to mislead.
By nature men are neither kings, nobles, courtiers, nor millionaires.
All men are born poor and naked, all are liable to the sorrows
of life, its disappointments, its ills, its needs, its suffering
of every kind; and all are condemned at length to die. This is
what it really means to be a man, this is what no mortal can escape.
Begin then with the study of the essentials of humanity, that
which really constitutes mankind.
At sixteen the adolescent knows what it is to suffer, for he himself
has suffered; but he scarcely realises that others suffer too;
to see without feeling is not knowledge, and as I have said again
and again the child who does not picture the feelings of others
knows no ills but his own; but when his imagination is kindled
by the first beginnings of growing sensibility, he begins to perceive
himself in his fellow-creatures, to be touched by their cries,
to suffer in their sufferings. It is at this time that the sorrowful
picture of suffering humanity should stir his heart with the first
touch of pity he has ever known.
If it is not easy to discover this opportunity in your scholars,
whose fault is it? You taught them so soon to play at feeling,
you taught them so early its language, that speaking continually
in the same strain they turn your lessons against yourself, and
give you no chance of discovering when they cease to lie, and
begin to feel what they say. But look at Emile; I have led him
up to this age, and he has neither felt nor pretended to feel.
He has never said, "I love you dearly," till he knew
what it was to love; he has never been taught what expression
to assume when he enters the room of his father, his mother, or
his sick tutor; he has not learnt the art of affecting a sorrow
he does not feel. He has never pretended to weep for the death
of any one, for he does not know what it is to die. There is the
same insensibility in his heart as in his manners. Indifferent,
like every child, to every one but himself, he takes no interest
in any one; his only peculiarity is that he will not pretend to
take such an interest; he is less deceitful than others.
Emile having thought little about creatures of feeling will be
a long time before he knows what is meant by pain and death. Groans
and cries will begin to stir his compassion, he will turn away
his eyes at the sight of blood; the convulsions of a dying animal
will cause him I know not what anguish before he knows the source
of these impulses. If he were still stupid and barbarous he would
not feel them; if he were more learned he would recognise their
source; he has compared ideas too frequently already to be insensible,
but not enough to know what he feels.
So pity is born, the first relative sentiment which touches the
human heart according to the order of nature. To become sensitive
and pitiful the child must know that he has fellow-creatures who
suffer as he has suffered, who feel the pains he has felt, and
others which he can form some idea of, being capable of feeling
them himself. Indeed, how can we let ourselves be stirred by pity
unless we go beyond ourselves, and identify ourselves with the
suffering animal, by leaving, so to speak, our own nature and
taking his. We only suffer so far as we suppose he suffers; the
suffering is not ours but his. So no one becomes sensitive till
his imagination is aroused and begins to carry him outside himself.
What should we do to stimulate and nourish this growing sensibility,
to direct it, and to follow its natural bent? Should we not present
to the young man objects on which the expansive force of his heart
may take effect, objects which dilate it, which extend it to other
creatures, which take him outside himself? should we not carefully
remove everything that narrows, concentrates, and strengthens
the power of the human self? that is to say, in other words, we
should arouse in him kindness, goodness, pity, and beneficence,
all the gentle and attractive passions which are naturally pleasing
to man; those passions prevent the growth of envy, covetousness,
hatred, all the repulsive and cruel passions which make our sensibility
not merely a cipher but a minus quantity, passions which are the
curse of those who feel them.
I think I can sum up the whole of the preceding reflections in
two or three maxims, definite, straightforward, and easy to understand.
FIRST MAXIM.--It is not in human nature to put ourselves in the
place of those who are happier than ourselves, but only in the
place of those who can claim our pity.
If you find exceptions to this rule, they are more apparent than
real. Thus we do not put ourselves in the place of the rich or
great when we become fond of them; even when our affection is
real, we only appropriate to ourselves a part of their welfare.
Sometimes we love the rich man in the midst of misfortunes; but
so long as he prospers he has no real friend, except the man who
is not deceived by appearances, who pities rather than envies
him in spite of his prosperity.
The happiness belonging to certain states of life appeals to us;
take, for instance, the life of a shepherd in the country. The
charm of seeing these good people so happy is not poisoned by
envy; we are genuinely interested in them. Why is this? Because
we feel we can descend into this state of peace and innocence
and enjoy the same happiness; it is an alternative which only
calls up pleasant thoughts, so long as the wish is as good as
the deed. It is always pleasant to examine our stores, to contemplate
our own wealth, even when we do not mean to spend it.
From this we see that to incline a young man to humanity you must
not make him admire the brilliant lot of others; you must show
him life in its sorrowful aspects and arouse his fears. Thus it
becomes clear that he must force his own way to happiness, without
interfering with the happiness of others.
SECOND MAXIM.--We never pity another's woes unless we know we
may suffer in like manner ourselves.
"Non ignara mali, miseris succurrere disco."--Virgil.
I know nothing go fine, so full of meaning, so touching, so true
as these words.
Why have kings no pity on their people? Because they never expect
to be ordinary men. Why are the rich so hard on the poor? Because
they have no fear of becoming poor. Why do the nobles look down
upon the people? Because a nobleman will never be one of the lower
classes. Why are the Turks generally kinder and more hospitable
than ourselves? Because, under their wholly arbitrary system of
government, the rank and wealth of individuals are always uncertain
and precarious, so that they do not regard poverty and degradation
as conditions with which they have no concern; to-morrow, any
one may himself be in the same position as those on whom he bestows
alms to-day. This thought, which occurs again and again in eastern
romances, lends them a certain tenderness which is not to be found
in our pretentious and harsh morality.
So do not train your pupil to look down from the height of his
glory upon the sufferings of the unfortunate, the labours of the
wretched, and do not hope to teach him to pity them while he considers
them as far removed from himself. Make him thoroughly aware of
the fact that the fate of these unhappy persons may one day be
his own, that his feet are standing on the edge of the abyss,
into which he may be plunged at any moment by a thousand unexpected
irresistible misfortunes. Teach him to put no trust in birth,
health, or riches; show him all the changes of fortune; find him
examples--there are only too many of them--in which men of higher
rank than himself have sunk below the condition of these wretched
ones. Whether by their own fault or another's is for the present
no concern of ours; does he indeed know the meaning of the word
fault? Never interfere with the order in which he acquires knowledge,
and teach him only through the means within his reach; it needs
no great learning to perceive that all the prudence of mankind
cannot make certain whether he will be alive or dead in an hour's
time, whether before nightfall he will not be grinding his teeth
in the pangs of nephritis, whether a month hence he will be rich
or poor, whether in a year's time he may not be rowing an Algerian
galley under the lash of the slave-driver. Above all do not teach
him this, like his catechism, in cold blood; let him see and feel
the calamities which overtake men; surprise and startle his imagination
with the perils which lurk continually about a man's path; let
him see the pitfalls all about him, and when he hears you speak
of them, let him cling more closely to you for fear lest he should
fall. "You will make him timid and cowardly," do you
say? We shall see; let us make him kindly to begin with, that
is what matters most.
THIRD MAXIM.--The pity we feel for others is proportionate, not
to the amount of the evil, but to the feelings we attribute to
the sufferers.
We only pity the wretched so far as we think they feel the need
of pity. The bodily effect of our sufferings is less than one
would suppose; it is memory that prolongs the pain, imagination
which projects it into the future, and makes us really to be pitied.
This is, I think, one of the reasons why we are more callous to
the sufferings of animals than of men, although a fellow-feeling
ought to make us identify ourselves equally with either. We scarcely
pity the cart-horse in his shed, for we do not suppose that while
he is eating his hay he is thinking of the blows he has received
and the labours in store for him. Neither do we pity the sheep
grazing in the field, though we know it is about to be slaughtered,
for we believe it knows nothing of the fate in store for it. In
this way we also become callous to the fate of our fellow-men,
and the rich console themselves for the harm done by them to the
poor, by the assumption that the poor are too stupid to feel.
I usually judge of the value any one puts on the welfare of his
fellow-creatures by what he seems to think of them. We naturally
think lightly of the happiness of those we despise. It need not
surprise you that politicians speak so scornfully of the people,
and philosophers profess to think mankind so wicked.
The people are mankind; those who do not belong to the people
are so few in number that they are not worth counting. Man is
the same in every station of life; if that be so, those ranks
to which most men belong deserve most honour. All distinctions
of rank fade away before the eyes of a thoughtful person; he sees
the same passions, the same feelings in the noble and the guttersnipe;
there is merely a slight difference in speech, and more or less
artificiality of tone; and if there is indeed any essential difference
between them, the disadvantage is all on the side of those who
are more sophisticated. The people show themselves as they are,
and they are not attractive; but the fashionable world is compelled
to adopt a disguise; we should be horrified if we saw it as it
really is.
There is, so our wiseacres tell us, the same amount of happiness
and sorrow in every station. This saying is as deadly in its effects
as it is incapable of proof; if all are equally happy why should
I trouble myself about any one? Let every one stay where he is;
leave the slave to be ill-treated, the sick man to suffer, and
the wretched to perish; they have nothing to gain by any change
in their condition. You enumerate the sorrows of the rich, and
show the vanity of his empty pleasures; what barefaced sophistry!
The rich man's sufferings do not come from his position, but from
himself alone when he abuses it. He is not to be pitied were he
indeed more miserable than the poor, for his ills are of his own
making, and he could be happy if he chose. But the sufferings
of the poor man come from external things, from the hardships
fate has imposed upon him. No amount of habit can accustom him
to the bodily ills of fatigue, exhaustion, and hunger. Neither
head nor heart can serve to free him from the sufferings of his
condition. How is Epictetus the better for knowing beforehand
that his master will break his leg for him; does he do it any
the less? He has to endure not only the pain itself but the pains
of anticipation. If the people were as wise as we assume them
to be stupid, how could they be other than they are? Observe persons
of this class; you will see that, with a different way of speaking,
they have as much intelligence and more common-sense than yourself.
Have respect then for your species; remember that it consists
essentially of the people, that if all the kings and all the philosophers
were removed they would scarcely be missed, and things would go
on none the worse. In a word, teach your pupil to love all men,
even those who fail to appreciate him; act in such way that he
is not a member of any class, but takes his place in all alike:
speak in his hearing of the human race with tenderness, and even
with pity, but never with scorn. You are a man; do not dishonour
mankind.
It is by these ways and others like them--how different from the
beaten paths--that we must reach the heart of the young adolescent
And stimulate in him the first impulses of nature; we must develop
that heart and open its doors to his fellow-creatures, and there
must be as little self-interest as possible mixed up with these
impulses; above all, no vanity, no emulation, no boasting, none
of those sentiments which force us to compare ourselves with others;
for such comparisons are never made without arousing some measure
of hatred against those who dispute our claim to the first place,
were it only in our own estimation. Then we must be either blind
or angry, a bad man or a fool; let us try to avoid this dilemma.
Sooner or later these dangerous passions will appear, so you tell
me, in spite of us. I do not deny it. There is a time and place
for everything; I am only saying that we should not help to arouse
these passions.
This is the spirit of the method to be laid down. In this case
examples and illustrations are useless, for here we find the beginning
of the countless differences of character, and every example I
gave would possibly apply to only one case in a hundred thousand.
It is at this age that the clever teacher begins his real business,
as a student and a philosopher who knows how to probe the heart
and strives to guide it aright. While the young man has not learnt
to pretend, while he does not even know the meaning of pretence,
you see by his look, his manner, his gestures, the impression
he has received from any object presented to him; you read in
his countenance every impulse of his heart; by watching his expression
you learn to protect his impulses and actually to control them.
It has been commonly observed that blood, wounds, cries and groans,
the preparations for painful operations, and everything which
directs the senses towards things connected with suffering, are
usually the first to make an impression on all men. The idea of
destruction, a more complex matter, does not have so great an
effect; the thought of death affects us later and less forcibly,
for no one knows from his own experience what it is to die; you
must have seen corpses to feel the agonies of the dying. But when
once this idea is established in the mind, there is no spectacle
more dreadful in our eyes, whether because of the idea of complete
destruction which it arouses through our senses, or because we
know that this moment must come for each one of us and we feel
ourselves all the more keenly affected by a situation from which
we know there is no escape.
These various impressions differ in manner and in degree, according
to the individual character of each one of us and his former habits,
but they are universal and no one is altogether free from them.
There are other impressions less universal and of a later growth,
impressions most suited to sensitive souls, such impressions as
we receive from moral suffering, inward grief, the sufferings
of the mind, depression, and sadness. There are men who can be
touched by nothing but groans and tears; the suppressed sobs of
a heart labouring under sorrow would never win a sigh; the sight
of a downcast visage, a pale and gloomy countenance, eyes which
can weep no longer, would never draw a tear from them. The sufferings
of the mind are as nothing to them; they weigh them, their own
mind feels nothing; expect nothing from such persons but inflexible
severity, harshness, cruelty. They may be just and upright, but
not merciful, generous, or pitiful. They may, I say, be just,
if a man can indeed be just without being merciful.
But do not be in a hurry to judge young people by this standard,
more especially those who have been educated rightly, who have
no idea of the moral sufferings they have never had to endure;
for once again they can only pity the ills they know, and this
apparent insensibility is soon transformed into pity when they
begin to feel that there are in human life a thousand ills of
which they know nothing. As for Emile, if in childhood he was
distinguished by simplicity and good sense, in his youth he will
show a warm and tender heart; for the reality of the feelings
depends to a great extent on the accuracy of the ideas.
But why call him hither? More than one reader will reproach me
no doubt for departing from my first intention and forgetting
the lasting happiness I promised my pupil. The sorrowful, the
dying, such sights of pain and woe, what happiness, what delight
is this for a young heart on the threshold of life? His gloomy
tutor, who proposed to give him such a pleasant education, only
introduces him to life that he may suffer. This is what they will
say, but what care I? I promised to make him happy, not to make
him seem happy. Am I to blame if, deceived as usual by the outward
appearances, you take them for the reality?
Let us take two young men at the close of their early education,
and let them enter the world by opposite doors. The one mounts
at once to Olympus, and moves in the smartest society; he is taken
to court, he is presented in the houses of the great, of the rich,
of the pretty women. I assume that he is everywhere made much
of, and I do not regard too closely the effect of this reception
on his reason; I assume it can stand it. Pleasures fly before
him, every day provides him with fresh amusements; he flings himself
into everything with an eagerness which carries you away. You
find him busy, eager, and curious; his first wonder makes a great
impression on you; you think him happy; but behold the state of
his heart; you think he is rejoicing, I think he suffers.
What does he see when first he opens his eyes? all sorts of so-called
pleasures, hitherto unknown. Most of these pleasures are only
for a moment within his reach, and seem to show themselves only
to inspire regret for their loss. Does he wander through a palace;
you see by his uneasy curiosity that he is asking why his father's
house is not like it. Every question shows you that he is comparing
himself all the time with the owner of this grand place. And all
the mortification arising from this comparison at once revolts
and stimulates his vanity. If he meets a young man better dressed
than himself, I find him secretly complaining of his parents'
meanness. If he is better dressed than another, he suffers because
the latter is his superior in birth or in intellect, and all his
gold lace is put to shame by a plain cloth coat. Does he shine
unrivalled in some assembly, does he stand on tiptoe that they
may see him better, who is there who does not secretly desire
to humble the pride and vanity of the young fop? Everybody is
in league against him; the disquieting glances of a solemn man,
the biting phrases of some satirical person, do not fail to reach
him, and if it were only one man who despised him, the scorn of
that one would poison in a moment the applause of the rest.
Let us grant him everything, let us not grudge him charm and worth;
let him be well-made, witty, and attractive; the women will run
after him; but by pursuing him before he is in love with them,
they will inspire rage rather than love; he will have successes,
but neither rapture nor passion to enjoy them. As his desires
are always anticipated; they never have time to spring up among
his pleasures, so he only feels the tedium of restraint. Even
before he knows it he is disgusted and satiated with the sex formed
to be the delight of his own; if he continues its pursuit it is
only through vanity, and even should he really be devoted to women,
he will not be the only brilliant, the only attractive young man,
nor will he always find his mistresses prodigies of fidelity.
I say nothing of the vexation, the deceit, the crimes, and the
remorse of all kinds, inseparable from such a life. We know that
experience of the world disgusts us with it; I am speaking only
of the drawbacks belonging to youthful illusions.
Hitherto the young man has lived in the bosom of his family and
his friends, and has been the sole object of their care; what
a change to enter all at once into a region where he counts for
so little; to find himself plunged into another sphere, he who
has been so long the centre of his own. What insults, what humiliation,
must he endure, before he loses among strangers the ideas of his
own importance which have been formed and nourished among his
own people! As a child everything gave way to him, everybody flocked
to him; as a young man he must give place to every one, or if
he preserves ever so little of his former airs, what harsh lessons
will bring him to himself! Accustomed to get everything he wants
without any difficulty, his wants are many, and he feels continual
privations. He is tempted by everything that flatters him; what
others have, he must have too; he covets everything, he envies
every one, he would always be master. He is devoured by vanity,
his young heart is enflamed by unbridled passions, jealousy and
hatred among the rest; all these violent passions burst out at
once; their sting rankles in him in the busy world, they return
with him at night, he comes back dissatisfied with himself, with
others; he falls asleep among a thousand foolish schemes disturbed
by a thousand fancies, and his pride shows him even in his dreams
those fancied pleasures; he is tormented by a desire which will
never be satisfied. So much for your pupil; let us turn to mine.
If the first thing to make an impression on him is something sorrowful
his first return to himself is a feeling of pleasure. When he
sees how many ills he has escaped he thinks he is happier than
he fancied. He shares the suffering of his fellow-creatures, but
he shares it of his own free will and finds pleasure in it. He
enjoys at once the pity he feels for their woes and the joy of
being exempt from them; he feels in himself that state of vigour
which projects us beyond ourselves, and bids us carry elsewhere
the superfluous activity of our well-being. To pity another's
woes we must indeed know them, but we need not feel them. When
we have suffered, when we are in fear of suffering, we pity those
who suffer; but when we suffer ourselves, we pity none but ourselves.
But if all of us, being subject ourselves to the ills of life,
only bestow upon others the sensibility we do not actually require
for ourselves, it follows that pity must be a very pleasant feeling,
since it speaks on our behalf; and, on the other hand, a hard-hearted
man is always unhappy, since the state of his heart leaves him
no superfluous sensibility to bestow on the sufferings of others.
We are too apt to judge of happiness by appearances; we suppose
it is to be found in the most unlikely places, we seek for it
where it cannot possibly be; mirth is a very doubtful indication
of its presence. A merry man is often a wretch who is trying to
deceive others and distract himself. The men who are jovial, friendly,
and contented at their club are almost always gloomy grumblers
at home, and their servants have to pay for the amusement they
give among their friends. True contentment is neither merry nor
noisy; we are jealous of so sweet a sentiment, when we enjoy it
we think about it, we delight in it for fear it should escape
us. A really happy man says little and laughs little; he hugs
his happiness, so to speak, to his heart. Noisy games, violent
delight, conceal the disappointment of satiety. But melancholy
is the friend of pleasure; tears and pity attend our sweetest
enjoyment, and great joys call for tears rather than laughter.
If at first the number and variety of our amusements seem to contribute
to our happiness, if at first the even tenor of a quiet life seems
tedious, when we look at it more closely we discover that the
pleasantest habit of mind consists in a moderate enjoyment which
leaves little scope for desire and aversion. The unrest of passion
causes curiosity and fickleness; the emptiness of noisy pleasures
causes weariness. We never weary of our state when we know none
more delightful. Savages suffer less than other men from curiosity
and from tedium; everything is the same to them--themselves, not
their possessions--and they are never weary.
The man of the world almost always wears a mask. He is scarcely
ever himself and is almost a stranger to himself; he is ill at
ease when he is forced into his own company. Not what he is, but
what he seems, is all he cares for.
I cannot help picturing in the countenance of the young man I
have just spoken of an indefinable but unpleasant impertinence,
smoothness, and affectation, which is repulsive to a plain man,
and in the countenance of my own pupil a simple and interesting
expression which indicates the real contentment and the calm of
his mind; an expression which inspires respect and confidence,
and seems only to await the establishment of friendly relations
to bestow his own confidence in return. It is thought that the
expression is merely the development of certain features designed
by nature. For my own part I think that over and above this development
a man's face is shaped, all unconsciously, by the frequent and
habitual influence of certain affections of the heart. These affections
are shown on the face, there is nothing more certain; and when
they become habitual, they must surely leave lasting traces. This
is why I think the expression shows the character, and that we
can sometimes read one another without seeking mysterious explanations
in powers we do not possess.
A child has only two distinct feelings, joy and sorrow; he laughs
or he cries; he knows no middle course, and he is constantly passing
from one extreme to the other. On account of these perpetual changes
there is no lasting impression on the face, and no expression;
but when the child is older and more sensitive, his feelings are
keener or more permanent, and these deeper impressions leave traces
more difficult to erase; and the habitual state of the feelings
has an effect on the features which in course of time becomes
ineffaceable. Still it is not uncommon to meet with men whose
expression varies with their age. I have met with several, and
I have always found that those whom I could observe and follow
had also changed their habitual temper. This one observation thoroughly
confirmed would seem to me decisive, and it is not out of place
in a treatise on education, where it is a matter of importance,
that we should learn to judge the feelings of the heart by external
signs.
I do not know whether my young man will be any the less amiable
for not having learnt to copy conventional manners and to feign
sentiments which are not his own; that does not concern me at
present, I only know he will be more affectionate; and I find
it difficult to believe that he, who cares for nobody but himself,
can so far disguise his true feelings as to please as readily
as he who finds fresh happiness for himself in his affection for
others. But with regard to this feeling of happiness, I think
I have said enough already for the guidance of any sensible reader,
and to show that I have not contradicted myself.
I return to my system, and I say, when the critical age approaches,
present to young people spectacles which restrain rather than
excite them; put off their dawning imagination with objects which,
far from inflaming their senses, put a check to their activity.
Remove them from great cities, where the flaunting attire and
the boldness of the women hasten and anticipate the teaching of
nature, where everything presents to their view pleasures of which
they should know nothing till they are of an age to choose for
themselves. Bring them back to their early home, where rural simplicity
allows the passions of their age to develop more slowly; or if
their taste for the arts keeps them in town, guard them by means
of this very taste from a dangerous idleness. Choose carefully
their company, their occupations, and their pleasures; show them
nothing but modest and pathetic pictures which are touching but
not seductive, and nourish their sensibility without stimulating
their senses. Remember also, that the danger of excess is not
confined to any one place, and that immoderate passions always
do irreparable damage. You need not make your pupil a sick-nurse
or a Brother of Pity; you need not distress him by the perpetual
sight of pain and suffering; you need not take him from one hospital
to another, from the gallows to the prison. He must be softened,
not hardened, by the sight of human misery. When we have seen
a sight it ceases to impress us, use is second nature, what is
always before our eyes no longer appeals to the imagination, and
it is only through the imagination that we can feel the sorrows
of others; this is why priests and doctors who are always beholding
death and suffering become so hardened. Let your pupil therefore
know something of the lot of man and the woes of his fellow-creatures,
but let him not see them too often. A single thing, carefully
selected and shown at the right time, will fill him with pity
and set him thinking for a month. His opinion about anything depends
not so much on what he sees, but on how it reacts on himself;
and his lasting impression of any object depends less on the object
itself than on the point of view from which he regards it. Thus
by a sparing use of examples, lessons, and pictures, you may blunt
the sting of sense and delay nature while following her own lead.
As he acquires knowledge, choose what ideas he shall attach to
it; as his passions awake, select scenes calculated to repress
them. A veteran, as distinguished for his character as for his
courage, once told me that in early youth his father, a sensible
man but extremely pious, observed that through his growing sensibility
he was attracted by women, and spared no pains to restrain him;
but at last when, in spite of all his care, his son was about
to escape from his control, he decided to take him to a hospital,
and, without telling him what to expect, he introduced him into
a room where a number of wretched creatures were expiating, under
a terrible treatment, the vices which had brought them into this
plight. This hideous and revolting spectacle sickened the young
man. "Miserable libertine," said his father vehemently,
"begone; follow your vile tastes; you will soon be only too
glad to be admitted to this ward, and a victim to the most shameful
sufferings, you will compel your father to thank God when you
are dead."
These few words, together with the striking spectacle he beheld,
made an impression on the young man which could never be effaced.
Compelled by his profession to pass his youth in garrison, he
preferred to face all the jests of his comrades rather than to
share their evil ways. "I have been a man," he said
to me, "I have had my weaknesses, but even to the present
day the sight of a harlot inspires me with horror." Say little
to your pupil, but choose time, place, and people; then rely on
concrete examples for your teaching, and be sure it will take
effect.
The way childhood is spent is no great matter; the evil which
may find its way is not irremediable, and the good which may spring
up might come later. But it is not so in those early years when
a youth really begins to live. This time is never long enough
for what there is to be done, and its importance demands unceasing
attention; this is why I lay so much stress on the art of prolonging
it. One of the best rules of good farming is to keep things back
as much as possible. Let your progress also be slow and sure;
prevent the youth from becoming a man all at once. While the body
is growing the spirits destined to give vigour to the blood and
strength to the muscles are in process of formation and elaboration.
If you turn them into another channel, and permit that strength
which should have gone to the perfecting of one person to go to
the making of another, both remain in a state of weakness and
the work of nature is unfinished. The workings of the mind, in
their turn, are affected by this change, and the mind, as sickly
as the body, functions languidly and feebly. Length and strength
of limb are not the same thing as courage or genius, and I grant
that strength of mind does not always accompany strength of body,
when the means of connection between the two are otherwise faulty.
But however well planned they may be, they will always work feebly
if for motive power they depend upon an exhausted, impoverished
supply of blood, deprived of the substance which gives strength
and elasticity to all the springs of the machinery. There is generally
more vigour of mind to be found among men whose early years have
been preserved from precocious vice, than among those whose evil
living has begun at the earliest opportunity; and this is no doubt
the reason why nations whose morals are pure are generally superior
in sense and courage to those whose morals are bad. The latter
shine only through I know not what small and trifling qualities,
which they call wit, sagacity, cunning; but those great and noble
features of goodness and reason, by which a man is distinguished
and honoured through good deeds, virtues, really useful efforts,
are scarcely to be found except among the nations whose morals
are pure.
Teachers complain that the energy of this age makes their pupils
unruly; I see that it is so, but are not they themselves to blame?
When once they have let this energy flow through the channel of
the senses, do they not know that they cannot change its course?
Will the long and dreary sermons of the pedant efface from the
mind of his scholar the thoughts of pleasure when once they have
found an entrance; will they banish from his heart the desires
by which it is tormented; will they chill the heat of a passion
whose meaning the scholar realises? Will not the pupil be roused
to anger by the obstacles opposed to the only kind of happiness
of which he has any notion? And in the harsh law imposed upon
him before he can understand it, what will he see but the caprice
and hatred of a man who is trying to torment him? Is it strange
that he rebels and hates you too?
I know very well that if one is easy-going one may be tolerated,
and one may keep up a show of authority. But I fail to see the
use of an authority over the pupil which is only maintained by
fomenting the vices it ought to repress; it is like attempting
to soothe a fiery steed by making it leap over a precipice.
Far from being a hindrance to education, this enthusiasm of adolescence
is its crown and coping-stone; this it is that gives you a hold
on the youth's heart when he is no longer weaker than you. His
first affections are the reins by which you control his movements;
he was free, and now I behold him in your power. So long as he
loved nothing, he was independent of everything but himself and
his own necessities; as soon as he loves, he is dependent on his
affections. Thus the first ties which unite him to his species
are already formed. When you direct his increasing sensibility
in this direction, do not expect that it will at once include
all men, and that the word "mankind" will have any meaning
for him. Not so; this sensibility will at first confine itself
to those like himself, and these will not be strangers to him,
but those he knows, those whom habit has made dear to him or necessary
to him, those who are evidently thinking and feeling as he does,
those whom he perceives to be exposed to the pains he has endured,
those who enjoy the pleasures he has enjoyed; in a word, those
who are so like himself that he is the more disposed to self-love.
It is only after long training, after much consideration as to
his own feelings and the feelings he observes in others, that
he will be able to generalise his individual notions under the
abstract idea of humanity, and add to his individual affections
those which may identify him with the race.
When he becomes capable of affection, he becomes aware of the
affection of others, [Footnote: Affection may be unrequited; not
so friendship. Friendship is a bargain, a contract like any other;
though a bargain more sacred than the rest. The word "friend"
has no other correlation. Any man who is not the friend of his
friend is undoubtedly a rascal; for one can only obtain friendship
by giving it, or pretending to give it.] and he is on the lookout
for the signs of that affection. Do you not see how you will acquire
a fresh hold on him? What bands have you bound about his heart
while he was yet unaware of them! What will he feel, when he beholds
himself and sees what you have done for him; when he can compare
himself with other youths, and other tutors with you! I say, "When
he sees it," but beware lest you tell him of it; if you tell
him he will not perceive it. If you claim his obedience in return
for the care bestowed upon him, he will think you have over-reached
him; he will see that while you profess to have cared for him
without reward, you meant to saddle him with a debt and to bind
him to a bargain which he never made. In vain you will add that
what you demand is for his own good; you demand it, and you demand
it in virtue of what you have done without his consent. When a
man down on his luck accepts the shilling which the sergeant professes
to give him, and finds he has enlisted without knowing what he
was about, you protest against the injustice; is it not still
more unjust to demand from your pupil the price of care which
he has not even accepted!
Ingratitude would be rarer if kindness were less often the investment
of a usurer. We love those who have done us a kindness; what a
natural feeling! Ingratitude is not to be found in the heart of
man, but self-interest is there; those who are ungrateful for
benefits received are fewer than those who do a kindness for their
own ends. If you sell me your gifts, I will haggle over the price;
but if you pretend to give, in order to sell later on at your
own price, you are guilty of fraud; it is the free gift which
is beyond price. The heart is a law to itself; if you try to bind
it, you lose it; give it its liberty, and you make it your own.
When the fisherman baits his line, the fish come round him without
suspicion; but when they are caught on the hook concealed in the
bait, they feel the line tighten and they try to escape. Is the
fisherman a benefactor? Is the fish ungrateful? Do we find a man
forgotten by his benefactor, unmindful of that benefactor? On
the contrary, he delights to speak of him, he cannot think of
him without emotion; if he gets a chance of showing him, by some
unexpected service, that he remembers what he did for him, how
delighted he is to satisfy his gratitude; what a pleasure it is
to earn the gratitude of his benefactor. How delightful to say,
"It is my turn now." This is indeed the teaching of
nature; a good deed never caused ingratitude.
If therefore gratitude is a natural feeling, and you do not destroy
its effects by your blunders, be sure your pupil, as he begins
to understand the value of your care for him, will be grateful
for it, provided you have not put a price upon it; and this will
give you an authority over his heart which nothing can overthrow.
But beware of losing this advantage before it is really yours,
beware of insisting on your own importance. Boast of your services
and they become intolerable; forget them and they will not be
forgotten. Until the time comes to treat him as a man let there
be no question of his duty to you, but his duty to himself. Let
him have his freedom if you would make him docile; hide yourself
so that he may seek you; raise his heart to the noble sentiment
of gratitude by only speaking of his own interest. Until he was
able to understand I would not have him told that what was done
was for his good; he would only have understood such words to
mean that you were dependent on him and he would merely have made
you his servant. But now that he is beginning to feel what love
is, he also knows what a tender affection may bind a man to what
he loves; and in the zeal which keeps you busy on his account,
he now sees not the bonds of a slave, but the affection of a friend.
Now there is nothing which carries so much weight with the human
heart as the voice of friendship recognised as such, for we know
that it never speaks but for our good. We may think our friend
is mistaken, but we never believe he is deceiving us. We may reject
his advice now and then, but we never scorn it.
We have reached the moral order at last; we have just taken the
second step towards manhood. If this were the place for it, I
would try to show how the first impulses of the heart give rise
to the first stirrings of conscience, and how from the feelings
of love and hatred spring the first notions of good and evil.
I would show that justice and kindness are no mere abstract terms,
no mere moral conceptions framed by the understanding, but true
affections of the heart enlightened by reason, the natural outcome
of our primitive affections; that by reason alone, unaided by
conscience, we cannot establish any natural law, and that all
natural right is a vain dream if it does not rest upon some instinctive
need of the human heart. [Footnote: The precept "Do unto
others as you would have them do unto you" has no true foundation
but that of conscience and feeling; for what valid reason is there
why I, being myself, should do what I would do if I were some
one else, especially when I am morally certain I never shall find
myself in exactly the same case; and who will answer for it that
if I faithfully follow out this maxim, I shall get others to follow
it with regard to me? The wicked takes advantage both of the uprightness
of the just and of his own injustice; he will gladly have everybody
just but himself. This bargain, whatever you may say, is not greatly
to the advantage of the just. But if the enthusiasm of an overflowing
heart identifies me with my fellow-creature, if I feel, so to
speak, that I will not let him suffer lest I should suffer too,
I care for him because I care for myself, and the reason of the
precept is found in nature herself, which inspires me with the
desire for my own welfare wherever I may be. From this I conclude
that it is false to say that the precepts of natural law are based
on reason only; they have a firmer and more solid foundation.
The love of others springing from self-love, is the source of
human justice. The whole of morality is summed up in the gospel
in this summary of the law.] But I do not think it is my business
at present to prepare treatises on metaphysics and morals, nor
courses of study of any kind whatsoever; it is enough if I indicate
the order and development of our feelings and our knowledge in
relation to our growth. Others will perhaps work out what I have
here merely indicated.
Hitherto my Emile has thought only of himself, so his first glance
at his equals leads him to compare himself with them; and the
first feeling excited by this comparison is the desire to be first.
It is here that self-love is transformed into selfishness, and
this is the starting point of all the passions which spring from
selfishness. But to determine whether the passions by which his
life will be governed shall be humane and gentle or harsh and
cruel, whether they shall be the passions of benevolence and pity
or those of envy and covetousness, we must know what he believes
his place among men to be, and what sort of obstacles he expects
to have to overcome in order to attain to the position he seeks.
To guide him in this inquiry, after we have shown him men by means
of the accidents common to the species, we must now show him them
by means of their differences. This is the time for estimating
inequality natural and civil, and for the scheme of the whole
social order.
Society must be studied in the individual and the individual in
society; those who desire to treat politics and morals apart from
one another will never understand either. By confining ourselves
at first to the primitive relations, we see how men should be
influenced by them and what passions should spring from them;
we see that it is in proportion to the development of these passions
that a man's relations with others expand or contract. It is not
so much strength of arm as moderation of spirit which makes men
free and independent. The man whose wants are few is dependent
on but few people, but those who constantly confound our vain
desires with our bodily needs, those who have made these needs
the basis of human society, are continually mistaking effects
for causes, and they have only confused themselves by their own
reasoning.
Since it is impossible in the state of nature that the difference
between man and man should be great enough to make one dependent
on another, there is in fact in this state of nature an actual
and indestructible equality. In the civil state there is a vain
and chimerical equality of right; the means intended for its maintenance,
themselves serve to destroy it; and the power of the community,
added to the power of the strongest for the oppression of the
weak, disturbs the sort of equilibrium which nature has established
between them. [Footnote: The universal spirit of the laws of every
country is always to take the part of the strong against the weak,
and the part of him who has against him who has not; this defect
is inevitable, and there is no exception to it.] From this first
contradiction spring all the other contradictions between the
real and the apparent, which are to be found in the civil order.
The many will always be sacrificed to the few, the common weal
to private interest; those specious words--justice and subordination--will
always serve as the tools of violence and the weapons of injustice;
hence it follows that the higher classes which claim to be useful
to the rest are really only seeking their own welfare at the expense
of others; from this we may judge how much consideration is due
to them according to right and justice. It remains to be seen
if the rank to which they have attained is more favourable to
their own happiness to know what opinion each one of us should
form with regard to his own lot. This is the study with which
we are now concerned; but to do it thoroughly we must begin with
a knowledge of the human heart.
If it were only a question of showing young people man in his
mask, there would be no need to point him out, and he would always
be before their eyes; but since the mask is not the man, and since
they must not be led away by its specious appearance, when you
paint men for your scholar, paint them as they are, not that he
may hate them, but that he may pity them and have no wish to be
like them. In my opinion that is the most reasonable view a man
can hold with regard to his fellow-men.
With this object in view we must take the opposite way from that
hitherto followed, and instruct the youth rather through the experience
of others than through his own. If men deceive him he will hate
them; but, if, while they treat him with respect, he sees them
deceiving each other, he will pity them. "The spectacle of
the world," said Pythagoras, "is like the Olympic games;
some are buying and selling and think only of their gains; others
take an active part and strive for glory; others, and these not
the worst, are content to be lookers-on."
I would have you so choose the company of a youth that he should
think well of those among whom he lives, and I would have you
so teach him to know the world that he should think ill of all
that takes place in it. Let him know that man is by nature good,
let him feel it, let him judge his neighbour by himself; but let
him see how men are depraved and perverted by society; let him
find the source of all their vices in their preconceived opinions;
let him be disposed to respect the individual, but to despise
the multitude; let him see that all men wear almost the same mask,
but let him also know that some faces are fairer than the mask
that conceals them.
It must be admitted that this method has its drawbacks, and it
is not easy to carry it out; for if he becomes too soon engrossed
in watching other people, if you train him to mark too closely
the actions of others, you will make him spiteful and satirical,
quick and decided in his judgments of others; he will find a hateful
pleasure in seeking bad motives, and will fail to see the good
even in that which is really good. He will, at least, get used
to the sight of vice, he will behold the wicked without horror,
just as we get used to seeing the wretched without pity. Soon
the perversity of mankind will be not so much a warning as an
excuse; he will say, "Man is made so," and he will have
no wish to be different from the rest.
But if you wish to teach him theoretically to make him acquainted,
not only with the heart of man, but also with the application
of the external causes which turn our inclinations into vices;
when you thus transport him all at once from the objects of sense
to the objects of reason, you employ a system of metaphysics which
he is not in a position to understand; you fall back into the
error, so carefully avoided hitherto, of giving him lessons which
are like lessons, of substituting in his mind the experience and
the authority of the master for his own experience and the development
of his own reason.
To remove these two obstacles at once, and to bring the human
heart within his reach without risk of spoiling his own, I would
show him men from afar, in other times or in other places, so
that he may behold the scene but cannot take part in it. This
is the time for history; with its help he will read the hearts
of men without any lessons in philosophy; with its help he will
view them as a mere spectator, dispassionate and without prejudice;
he will view them as their judge, not as their accomplice or their
accuser.
To know men you must behold their actions. In society we hear
them talk; they show their words and hide their deeds; but in
history the veil is drawn aside, and they are judged by their
deeds. Their sayings even help us to understand them; for comparing
what they say and what they do, we see not only what they are
but what they would appear; the more they disguise themselves
the more thoroughly they stand revealed.
Unluckily this study has its dangers, its drawbacks of several
kinds. It is difficult to adopt a point of view which will enable
one to judge one's fellow-creatures fairly. It is one of the chief
defects of history to paint men's evil deeds rather than their
good ones; it is revolutions and catastrophes that make history
interesting; so long as a nation grows and prospers quietly in
the tranquillity of a peaceful government, history says nothing;
she only begins to speak of nations when, no longer able to be
self-sufficing, they interfere with their neighbours' business,
or allow their neighbours to interfere with their own; history
only makes them famous when they are on the downward path; all
our histories begin where they ought to end. We have very accurate
accounts of declining nations; what we lack is the history of
those nations which are multiplying; they are so happy and so
good that history has nothing to tell us of them; and we see indeed
in our own times that the most successful governments are least
talked of. We only hear what is bad; the good is scarcely mentioned.
Only the wicked become famous, the good are forgotten or laughed
to scorn, and thus history, like philosophy, is for ever slandering
mankind.
Moreover, it is inevitable that the facts described in history
should not give an exact picture of what really happened; they
are transformed in the brain of the historian, they are moulded
by his interests and coloured by his prejudices. Who can place
the reader precisely in a position to see the event as it really
happened? Ignorance or partiality disguises everything. What a
different impression may be given merely by expanding or contracting
the circumstances of the case without altering a single historical
incident. The same object may be seen from several points of view,
and it will hardly seem the same thing, yet there has been no
change except in the eye that beholds it. Do you indeed do honour
to truth when what you tell me is a genuine fact, but you make
it appear something quite different? A tree more or less, a rock
to the right or to the left, a cloud of dust raised by the wind,
how often have these decided the result of a battle without any
one knowing it? Does that prevent history from telling you the
cause of defeat or victory with as much assurance as if she had
been on the spot? But what are the facts to me, while I am ignorant
of their causes, and what lessons can I draw from an event, whose
true cause is unknown to me? The historian indeed gives me a reason,
but he invents it; and criticism itself, of which we hear so much,
is only the art of guessing, the art of choosing from among several
lies, the lie that is most like truth.
Have you ever read Cleopatra or Cassandra or any books of the
kind? The author selects some well-known event, he then adapts
it to his purpose, adorns it with details of his own invention,
with people who never existed, with imaginary portraits; thus
he piles fiction on fiction to lend a charm to his story. I see
little difference between such romances and your histories, unless
it is that the novelist draws more on his own imagination, while
the historian slavishly copies what another has imagined; I will
also admit, if you please, that the novelist has some moral purpose
good or bad, about which the historian scarcely concerns himself.
You will tell me that accuracy in history is of less interest
than a true picture of men and manners; provided the human heart
is truly portrayed, it matters little that events should be accurately
recorded; for after all you say, what does it matter to us what
happened two thousand years ago? You are right if the portraits
are indeed truly given according to nature; but if the model is
to be found for the most part in the historian's imagination,
are you not falling into the very error you intended to avoid,
and surrendering to the authority of the historian what you would
not yield to the authority of the teacher? If my pupil is merely
to see fancy pictures, I would rather draw them myself; they will,
at least, be better suited to him.
The worst historians for a youth are those who give their opinions.
Facts! Facts! and let him decide for himself; this is how he will
learn to know mankind. If he is always directed by the opinion
of the author, he is only seeing through the eyes of another person,
and when those ayes are no longer at his disposal he can see nothing.
I leave modern history on one side, not only because it has no
character and all our people are alike, but because our historians,
wholly taken up with effect, think of nothing but highly coloured
portraits, which often represent nothing. [Footnote: Take, for
instance, Guicciardini, Streda, Solis, Machiavelli, and sometimes
even De Thou himself. Vertot is almost the only one who knows
how to describe without giving fancy portraits.] The old historians
generally give fewer portraits and bring more intelligence and
common-sense to their judgments; but even among them there is
plenty of scope for choice, and you must not begin with the wisest
but with the simplest. I would not put Polybius or Sallust into
the hands of a youth; Tacitus is the author of the old, young
men cannot understand him; you must learn to see in human actions
the simplest features of the heart of man before you try to sound
its depths. You must be able to read facts clearly before you
begin to study maxims. Philosophy in the form of maxims is only
fit for the experienced. Youth should never deal with the general,
all its teaching should deal with individual instances.
To my mind Thucydides is the true model of historians. He relates
facts without giving his opinion; but he omits no circumstance
adapted to make us judge for ourselves. He puts everything that
he relates before his reader; far from interposing between the
facts and the readers, he conceals himself; we seem not to read
but to see. Unfortunately he speaks of nothing but war, and in
his stories we only see the least instructive part of the world,
that is to say the battles. The virtues and defects of the Retreat
of the Ten Thousand and the Commentaries of Caesar are almost
the same. The kindly Herodotus, without portraits, without maxims,
yet flowing, simple, full of details calculated to delight and
interest in the highest degree, would be perhaps the best historian
if these very details did not often degenerate into childish folly,
better adapted to spoil the taste of youth than to form it; we
need discretion before we can read him. I say nothing of Livy,
his turn will come; but he is a statesman, a rhetorician, he is
everything which is unsuitable for a youth.
History in general is lacking because it only takes note of striking
and clearly marked facts which may be fixed by names, places,
and dates; but the slow evolution of these facts, which cannot
be definitely noted in this way, still remains unknown. We often
find in some battle, lost or won, the ostensible cause of a revolution
which was inevitable before this battle took place. War only makes
manifest events already determined by moral causes, which few
historians can perceive.
The philosophic spirit has turned the thoughts of many of the
historians of our times in this direction; but I doubt whether
truth has profited by their labours. The rage for systems has
got possession of all alike, no one seeks to see things as they
are, but only as they agree with his system.
Add to all these considerations the fact that history shows us
actions rather than men, because she only seizes men at certain
chosen times in full dress; she only portrays the statesman when
he is prepared to be seen; she does not follow him to his home,
to his study, among his family and his friends; she only shows
him in state; it is his clothes rather than himself that she describes.
I would prefer to begin the study of the human heart with reading
the lives of individuals; for then the man hides himself in vain,
the historian follows him everywhere; he never gives him a moment's
grace nor any corner where he can escape the piercing eye of the
spectator; and when he thinks he is concealing himself, then it
is that the writer shows him up most plainly.
"Those who write lives," says Montaigne, "in so
far as they delight more in ideas than in events, more in that
which comes from within than in that which comes from without,
these are the writers I prefer; for this reason Plutarch is in
every way the man for me."
It is true that the genius of men in groups or nations is very
different from the character of the individual man, and that we
have a very imperfect knowledge of the human heart if we do not
also examine it in crowds; but it is none the less true that to
judge of men we must study the individual man, and that he who
had a perfect knowledge of the inclinations of each individual
might foresee all their combined effects in the body of the nation.
We must go back again to the ancients, for the reasons already
stated, and also because all the details common and familiar,
but true and characteristic, are banished by modern stylists,
so that men are as much tricked out by our modern authors in their
private life as in public. Propriety, no less strict in literature
than in life, no longer permits us to say anything in public which
we might not do in public; and as we may only show the man dressed
up for his part, we never see a man in our books any more than
we do on the stage. The lives of kings may be written a hundred
times, but to no purpose; we shall never have another Suetonius.
The excellence of Plutarch consists in these very details which
we are no longer permitted to describe. With inimitable grace
he paints the great man in little things; and he is so happy in
the choice of his instances that a word, a smile, a gesture, will
often suffice to indicate the nature of his hero. With a jest
Hannibal cheers his frightened soldiers, and leads them laughing
to the battle which will lay Italy at his feet; Agesilaus riding
on a stick makes me love the conqueror of the great king; Caesar
passing through a poor village and chatting with his friends unconsciously
betrays the traitor who professed that he only wished to be Pompey's
equal. Alexander swallows a draught without a word--it is the
finest moment in his life; Aristides writes his own name on the
shell and so justifies his title; Philopoemen, his mantle laid
aside, chops firewood in the kitchen of his host. This is the
true art of portraiture. Our disposition does not show itself
in our features, nor our character in our great deeds; it is trifles
that show what we really are. What is done in public is either
too commonplace or too artificial, and our modern authors are
almost too grand to tell us anything else.
M. de Turenne was undoubtedly one of the greatest men of the last
century. They have had the courage to make his life interesting
by the little details which make us know and love him; but how
many details have they felt obliged to omit which might have made
us know and love him better still? I will only quote one which
I have on good authority, one which Plutarch would never have
omitted, and one which Ramsai would never have inserted had he
been acquainted with it.
On a hot summer's day Viscount Turenne in a little white vest
and nightcap was standing at the window of his antechamber; one
of his men came up and, misled by the dress, took him for one
of the kitchen lads whom he knew. He crept up behind him and smacked
him with no light hand. The man he struck turned round hastily.
The valet saw it was his master and trembled at the sight of his
face. He fell on his knees in desperation. "Sir, I thought
it was George." "Well, even if it was George,"
exclaimed Turenne rubbing the injured part, "you need not
have struck so hard." You do not dare to say this, you miserable
writers! Remain for ever without humanity and without feeling;
steel your hard hearts in your vile propriety, make yourselves
contemptible through your high-mightiness. But as for you, dear
youth, when you read this anecdote, when you are touched by all
the kindliness displayed even on the impulse of the moment, read
also the littleness of this great man when it was a question of
his name and birth. Remember it was this very Turenne who always
professed to yield precedence to his nephew, so that all men might
see that this child was the head of a royal house. Look on this
picture and on that, love nature, despise popular prejudice, and
know the man as he was.
There are few people able to realise what an effect such reading,
carefully directed, will have upon the unspoilt mind of a youth.
Weighed down by books from our earliest childhood, accustomed
to read without thinking, what we read strikes us even less, because
we already bear in ourselves the passions and prejudices with
which history and the lives of men are filled; all that they do
strikes us as only natural, for we ourselves are unnatural and
we judge others by ourselves. But imagine my Emile, who has been
carefully guarded for eighteen years with the sole object of preserving
a right judgment and a healthy heart, imagine him when the curtain
goes up casting his eyes for the first time upon the world's stage;
or rather picture him behind the scenes watching the actors don
their costumes, and counting the cords and pulleys which deceive
with their feigned shows the eyes of the spectators. His first
surprise will soon give place to feelings of shame and scorn of
his fellow-man; he will be indignant at the sight of the whole
human race deceiving itself and stooping to this childish folly;
he will grieve to see his brothers tearing each other limb from
limb for a mere dream, and transforming themselves into wild beasts
because they could not be content to be men.
Given the natural disposition of the pupil, there is no doubt
that if the master exercises any sort of prudence or discretion
in his choice of reading, however little he may put him in the
way of reflecting on the subject-matter, this exercise will serve
as a course in practical philosophy, a philosophy better understood
and more thoroughly mastered than all the empty speculations with
which the brains of lads are muddled in our schools. After following
the romantic schemes of Pyrrhus, Cineas asks him what real good
he would gain by the conquest of the world, which he can never
enjoy without such great sufferings; this only arouses in us a
passing interest as a smart saying; but Emile will think it a
very wise thought, one which had already occurred to himself,
and one which he will never forget, because there is no hostile
prejudice in his mind to prevent it sinking in. When he reads
more of the life of this madman, he will find that all his great
plans resulted in his death at the hands of a woman, and instead
of admiring this pinchbeck heroism, what will he see in the exploits
of this great captain and the schemes of this great statesman
but so many steps towards that unlucky tile which was to bring
life and schemes alike to a shameful death?
All conquerors have not been killed; all usurpers have not failed
in their plans; to minds imbued with vulgar prejudices many of
them will seem happy, but he who looks below the surface and reckons
men's happiness by the condition of their hearts will perceive
their wretchedness even in the midst of their successes; he will
see them panting after advancement and never attaining their prize,
he will find them like those inexperienced travellers among the
Alps, who think that every height they see is the last, who reach
its summit only to find to their disappointment there are loftier
peaks beyond.
Augustus, when he had subdued his fellow-citizens and destroyed
his rivals, reigned for forty years over the greatest empire that
ever existed; but all this vast power could not hinder him from
beating his head against the walls, and filling his palace with
his groans as he cried to Varus to restore his slaughtered legions.
If he had conquered all his foes what good would his empty triumphs
have done him, when troubles of every kind beset his path, when
his life was threatened by his dearest friends, and when he had
to mourn the disgrace or death of all near and dear to him? The
wretched man desired to rule the world and failed to rule his
own household. What was the result of this neglect? He beheld
his nephew, his adopted child, his son-in-law, perish in the flower
of youth, his grandson reduced to eat the stuffing of his mattress
to prolong his wretched existence for a few hours; his daughter
and his granddaughter, after they had covered him with infamy,
died, the one of hunger and want on a desert island, the other
in prison by the hand of a common archer. He himself, the last
survivor of his unhappy house, found himself compelled by his
own wife to acknowledge a monster as his heir. Such was the fate
of the master of the world, so famous for his glory and his good
fortune. I cannot believe that any one of those who admire his
glory and fortune would accept them at the same price.
I have taken ambition as my example, but the play of every human
passion offers similar lessons to any one who will study history
to make himself wise and good at the expense of those who went
before. The time is drawing near when the teaching of the life
of Anthony will appeal more forcibly to the youth than the life
of Augustus. Emile will scarcely know where he is among the many
strange sights in his new studies; but he will know beforehand
how to avoid the illusion of passions before they arise, and seeing
how in all ages they have blinded men's eyes, he will be forewarned
of the way in which they may one day blind his own should he abandon
himself to them. [Footnote: It is always prejudice which stirs
up passion in our heart. He who only sees what really exists and
only values what he knows, rarely becomes angry. The errors of
our judgment produce the warmth of our desires.] These lessons,
I know, are unsuited to him, perhaps at need they may prove scanty
and ill-timed; but remember they are not the lessons I wished
to draw from this study. To begin with, I had quite another end
in view; and indeed, if this purpose is unfulfilled, the teacher
will be to blame.
Remember that, as soon as selfishness has developed, the self
in its relations to others is always with us, and the youth never
observes others without coming back to himself and comparing himself
with them. From the way young men are taught to study history
I see that they are transformed, so to speak, into the people
they behold, that you strive to make a Cicero, a Trajan, or an
Alexander of them, to discourage them when they are themselves
again, to make every one regret that he is merely himself. There
are certain advantages in this plan which I do not deny; but,
so far as Emile is concerned, should it happen at any time when
he is making these comparisons that he wishes to be any one but
himself--were it Socrates or Cato--I have failed entirely; he
who begins to regard himself as a stranger will soon forget himself
altogether.
It is not philosophers who know most about men; they only view
them through the preconceived ideas of philosophy, and I know
no one so prejudiced as philosophers. A savage would judge us
more sanely. The philosopher is aware of his own vices, he is
indignant at ours, and he says to himself, "We are all bad
alike;" the savage beholds us unmoved and says, "You
are mad." He is right, for no one does evil for evil's sake.
My pupil is that savage, with this difference: Emile has thought
more, he has compared ideas, seen our errors at close quarters,
he is more on his guard against himself, and only judges of what
he knows.
It is our own passions that excite us against the passions of
others; it is our self-interest which makes us hate the wicked;
if they did us no harm we should pity rather than hate them. We
should readily forgive their vices if we could perceive how their
own heart punishes those vices. We are aware of the offence, but
we do not see the punishment; the advantages are plain, the penalty
is hidden. The man who thinks he is enjoying the fruits of his
vices is no less tormented by them than if they had not been successful;
the object is different, the anxiety is the same; in vain he displays
his good fortune and hides his heart; in spite of himself his
conduct betrays him; but to discern this, our own heart must be
utterly unlike his.
We are led astray by those passions which we share; we are disgusted
by those that militate against our own interests; and with a want
of logic due to these very passions, we blame in others what we
fain would imitate. Aversion and self-deception are inevitable
when we are forced to endure at another's hands what we ourselves
would do in his place.
What then is required for the proper study of men? A great wish
to know men, great impartiality of judgment, a heart sufficiently
sensitive to understand every human passion, and calm enough to
be free from passion. If there is any time in our life when this
study is likely to be appreciated, it is this that I have chosen
for Emile; before this time men would have been strangers to him;
later on he would have been like them. Convention, the effects
of which he already perceives, has not yet made him its slave,
the passions, whose consequences he realises, have not yet stirred
his heart. He is a man; he takes an interest in his brethren;
he is a just man and he judges his peers. Now it is certain that
if he judges them rightly he will not want to change places with
any one of them, for the goal of all their anxious efforts is
the result of prejudices which he does not share, and that goal
seems to him a mere dream. For his own part, he has all he wants
within his reach. How should he be dependent on any one when he
is self-sufficing and free from prejudice? Strong arms, good health,
[Footnote: I think I may fairly reckon health and strength among
the advantages he has obtained by his education, or rather among
the gifts of nature which his education has preserved for him.]
moderation, few needs, together with the means to satisfy those
needs, are his. He has been brought up in complete liberty and
servitude is the greatest ill he understands. He pities these
miserable kings, the slaves of all who obey them; he pities these
false prophets fettered by their empty fame; he pities these rich
fools, martyrs to their own pomp; he pities these ostentatious
voluptuaries, who spend their life in deadly dullness that they
may seem to enjoy its pleasures. He would pity the very foe who
harmed him, for he would discern his wretchedness beneath his
cloak of spite. He would say to himself, "This man has yielded
to his desire to hurt me, and this need of his places him at my
mercy."
One step more and our goal is attained. Selfishness is a dangerous
tool though a useful one; it often wounds the hand that uses it,
and it rarely does good unmixed with evil. When Emile considers
his place among men, when he finds himself so fortunately situated,
he will be tempted to give credit to his own reason for the work
of yours, and to attribute to his own deserts what is really the
result of his good fortune. He will say to himself, "I am
wise and other men are fools." He will pity and despise them
and will congratulate himself all the more heartily; and as he
knows he is happier than they, he will think his deserts are greater.
This is the fault we have most to fear, for it is the most difficult
to eradicate. If he remained in this state of mind, he would have
profited little by all our care; and if I had to choose, I hardly
know whether I would not rather choose the illusions of prejudice
than those of pride.
Great men are under no illusion with respect to their superiority;
they see it and know it, but they are none the less modest. The
more they have, the better they know what they lack. They are
less vain of their superiority over us than ashamed by the consciousness
of their weakness, and among the good things they really possess,
they are too wise to pride themselves on a gift which is none
of their getting. The good man may be proud of his virtue for
it is his own, but what cause for pride has the man of intellect?
What has Racine done that he is not Pradon, and Boileau that he
is not Cotin?
The circumstances with which we are concerned are quite different.
Let us keep to the common level. I assumed that my pupil had neither
surpassing genius nor a defective understanding. I chose him of
an ordinary mind to show what education could do for man. Exceptions
defy all rules. If, therefore, as a result of my care, Emile prefers
his way of living, seeing, and feeling to that of others, he is
right; but if he thinks because of this that he is nobler and
better born than they, he is wrong; he is deceiving himself; he
must be undeceived, or rather let us prevent the mistake, lest
it be too late to correct it.
Provided a man is not mad, he can be cured of any folly but vanity;
there is no cure for this but experience, if indeed there is any
cure for it at all; when it first appears we can at least prevent
its further growth. But do not on this account waste your breath
on empty arguments to prove to the youth that he is like other
men and subject to the same weaknesses. Make him feel it or he
will never know it. This is another instance of an exception to
my own rules; I must voluntarily expose my pupil to every accident
which may convince him that he is no wiser than we. The adventure
with the conjurer will be repeated again and again in different
ways; I shall let flatterers take advantage of him; if rash comrades
draw him into some perilous adventure, I will let him run the
risk; if he falls into the hands of sharpers at the card-table,
I will abandon him to them as their dupe.[Footnote: Moreover our
pupil will be little tempted by this snare; he has so many amusements
about him, he has never been bored in his life, and he scarcely
knows the use of money. As children have been led by these two
motives, self-interest and vanity, rogues and courtesans use the
same means to get hold of them later. When you see their greediness
encouraged by prizes and rewards, when you find their public performances
at ten years old applauded at school or college, you see too how
at twenty they will be induced to leave their purse in a gambling
hell and their health in a worse place. You may safely wager that
the sharpest boy in the class will become the greatest gambler
and debauchee. Now the means which have not been employed in childhood
have not the same effect in youth. But we must bear in mind my
constant plan and take the thing at its worst. First I try to
prevent the vice; then I assume its existence in order to correct
it.] I will let them flatter him, pluck him, and rob him; and
when having sucked him dry they turn and mock him, I will even
thank them to his face for the lessons they have been good enough
to give him. The only snares from which I will guard him with
my utmost care are the wiles of wanton women. The only precaution
I shall take will be to share all the dangers I let him run, and
all the insults I let him receive. I will bear everything in silence,
without a murmur or reproach, without a word to him, and be sure
that if this wise conduct is faithfully adhered to, what he sees
me endure on his account will make more impression on his heart
than what he himself suffers.
I cannot refrain at this point from drawing attention to the sham
dignity of tutors, who foolishly pretend to be wise, who discourage
their pupils by always professing to treat them as children, and
by emphasising the difference between themselves and their scholars
in everything they do. Far from damping their youthful spirits
in this fashion, spare no effort to stimulate their courage; that
they may become your equals, treat them as such already, and if
they cannot rise to your level, do not scruple to come down to
theirs without being ashamed of it. Remember that your honour
is no longer in your own keeping but in your pupil's. Share his
faults that you may correct them, bear his disgrace that you may
wipe it out; follow the example of that brave Roman who, unable
to rally his fleeing soldiers, placed himself at their head, exclaiming,
"They do not flee, they follow their captain!" Did this
dishonour him? Not so; by sacrificing his glory he increased it.
The power of duty, the beauty of virtue, compel our respect in
spite of all our foolish prejudices. If I received a blow in the
course of my duties to Emile, far from avenging it I would boast
of it; and I doubt whether there is in the whole world a man so
vile as to respect me any the less on this account.
I do not intend the pupil to suppose his master to be as ignorant,
or as liable to be led astray, as he is himself. This idea is
all very well for a child who can neither see nor compare things,
who thinks everything is within his reach, and only bestows his
confidence on those who know how to come down to his level. But
a youth of Emile's age and sense is no longer so foolish as to
make this mistake, and it would not be desirable that he should.
The confidence he ought to have in his tutor is of another kind;
it should rest on the authority of reason, and on superior knowledge,
advantages which the young man is capable of appreciating while
he perceives how useful they are to himself. Long experience has
convinced him that his tutor loves him, that he is a wise and
good man who desires his happiness and knows how to procure it.
He ought to know that it is to his own advantage to listen to
his advice. But if the master lets himself be taken in like the
disciple, he will lose his right to expect deference from him,
and to give him instruction. Still less should the pupil suppose
that his master is purposely letting him fall into snares or preparing
pitfalls for his inexperience. How can we avoid these two difficulties?
Choose the best and most natural means; be frank and straightforward
like himself; warn him of the dangers to which he is exposed,
point them out plainly and sensibly, without exaggeration, without
temper, without pedantic display, and above all without giving
your opinions in the form of orders, until they have become such,
and until this imperious tone is absolutely necessary. Should
he still be obstinate as he often will be, leave him free to follow
his own choice, follow him, copy his example, and that cheerfully
and frankly; if possible fling yourself into things, amuse yourself
as much as he does. If the consequences become too serious, you
are at hand to prevent them; and yet when this young man has beheld
your foresight and your kindliness, will he not be at once struck
by the one and touched by the other? All his faults are but so
many hands with which he himself provides you to restrain him
at need. Now under these circumstances the great art of the master
consists in controlling events and directing his exhortations
so that he may know beforehand when the youth will give in, and
when he will refuse to do so, so that all around him he may encompass
him with the lessons of experience, and yet never let him run
too great a risk.
Warn him of his faults before he commits them; do not blame him
when once they are committed; you would only stir his self-love
to mutiny. We learn nothing from a lesson we detest. I know nothing
more foolish than the phrase, "I told you so." The best
way to make him remember what you told him is to seem to have
forgotten it. Go further than this, and when you find him ashamed
of having refused to believe you, gently smooth away the shame
with kindly words. He will indeed hold you dear when he sees how
you forget yourself on his account, and how you console him instead
of reproaching him. But if you increase his annoyance by your
reproaches he will hate you, and will make it a rule never to
heed you, as if to show you that he does not agree with you as
to the value of your opinion.
The turn you give to your consolation may itself be a lesson to
him, and all the more because he does not suspect it. When you
tell him, for example, that many other people have made the same
mistakes, this is not what he was expecting; you are administering
correction under the guise of pity; for when one thinks oneself
better than other people it is a very mortifying excuse to console
oneself by their example; it means that we must realise that the
most we can say is that they are no better than we.
The time of faults is the time for fables. When we blame the guilty
under the cover of a story we instruct without offending him;
and he then understands that the story is not untrue by means
of the truth he finds in its application to himself. The child
who has never been deceived by flattery understands nothing of
the fable I recently examined; but the rash youth who has just
become the dupe of a flatterer perceives only too readily that
the crow was a fool. Thus he acquires a maxim from the fact, and
the experience he would soon have forgotten is engraved on his
mind by means of the fable. There is no knowledge of morals which
cannot be acquired through our own experience or that of others.
When there is danger, instead of letting him try the experiment
himself, we have recourse to history. When the risk is comparatively
slight, it is just as well that the youth should be exposed to
it; then by means of the apologue the special cases with which
the young man is now acquainted are transformed into maxims.
It is not, however, my intention that these maxims should be explained,
nor even formulated. Nothing is so foolish and unwise as the moral
at the end of most of the fables; as if the moral was not, or
ought not to be so clear in the fable itself that the reader cannot
fail to perceive it. Why then add the moral at the end, and go
deprive him of the pleasure of discovering it for himself. The
art of teaching consists in making the pupil wish to learn. But
if the pupil is to wish to learn, his mind must not remain in
such a passive state with regard to what you tell him that there
is really nothing for him to do but listen to you. The master's
vanity must always give way to the scholars; he must be able to
say, I understand, I see it, I am getting at it, I am learning
something. One of the things which makes the Pantaloon in the
Italian comedies so wearisome is the pains taken by him to explain
to the audience the platitudes they understand only too well already.
We must always be intelligible, but we need not say all there
is to be said. If you talk much you will say little, for at last
no one will listen to you. What is the sense of the four lines
at the end of La Fontaine's fable of the frog who puffed herself
up. Is he afraid we should not understand it? Does this great
painter need to write the names beneath the things he has painted?
His morals, far from generalising, restrict the lesson to some
extent to the examples given, and prevent our applying them to
others. Before I put the fables of this inimitable author into
the hands of a youth, I should like to cut out all the conclusions
with which he strives to explain what he has just said so clearly
and pleasantly. If your pupil does not understand the fable without
the explanation, he will not understand it with it.
Moreover, the fables would require to be arranged in a more didactic
order, one more in agreement with the feelings and knowledge of
the young adolescent. Can you imagine anything so foolish as to
follow the mere numerical order of the book without regard to
our requirements or our opportunities. First the grasshopper,
then the crow, then the frog, then the two mules, etc. I am sick
of these two mules; I remember seeing a child who was being educated
for finance; they never let him alone, but were always insisting
on the profession he was to follow; they made him read this fable,
learn it, say it, repeat it again and again without finding in
it the slightest argument against his future calling. Not only
have I never found children make any real use of the fables they
learn, but I have never found anybody who took the trouble to
see that they made such a use of them. The study claims to be
instruction in morals; but the real aim of mother and child is
nothing but to ........Continua
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