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THE SYSTEMS APPROACH
TO MANAGEMENT Following World War II and the work of March
& Simon, there was increased interest in the use of quantitative
(statistical, mathematical, computerized) methods in management
(as administrative thought was beginning to be called). The "systems"
movement, aka "the quantitative school" gave us numerous tools,
such as PPBS (Planned Programmed Budgeting Systems), CIS (Computer
Information Systems), and the whole field of Operations Research.
It has turned out to provide a solid basis for the analysis of organizations,
which are characterized as either "open" systems (which interact
with and are influenced by their environment) or "closed" systems
(which do not interact with their environment). A clock is an example
of a closed system because assuming a power source, the clock needs
no further outside environment to run properly. A plant is an example
of an open system because it needs air and sunlight from the environment.
Examples of environmental factors in criminal justice include clienteles,
constituencies, law, politics, and technology.
It is customary to note that systems theory represented the merger of many ideas from scientific management and from human relations management. It was indeed project-based, lending itself well to Gantt charts, and it also strived toward synergism (where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts) through humanistic management of at least the internal environment (the informal organization of the workers). THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF SYSTEMS THEORY Much of systems theory resembles the scientific method: you hypothesize, design a controlled experiment, collect data, and analyze data. The purpose is to maintain the use of science in management to obtain "real time" results that can be used instantaneously to affect control in the organization (some have even accused systems theory of being "science in management" rather than a "science of management"). The goal is to maintain your attention on the whole at all costs. For managers, this means:
SOME BETTER-KNOWN EXAMPLES OF SYSTEMS THEORIES Robert Blake & Jane Mouton
(1964) developed a theory known as the "Managerial Grid". It is
based on two variables: focus on task and focus on relationships.
The grid includes five possible leadership styles based on concern
for task or concern for people. Using a specially designed testing
instrument, people can be assigned a numerical score depicting their
concern for each variable. Numerical indications, such as 9,1 or
9,9 or 1,9 or 1,1 or 5,5 can then be plotted on the grid using horizontal
and vertical axes. Although their work is also often classified
as a Leadership Theory, it is typical of the specially designed
analysis and instruments of the systems theorists.
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